Exploring the Psychological Impacts of Participating in Sports

Tackling Mental Health 

Participating in competitive and high-performance sports is a multifaceted experience that can influence mental health in positive and negative ways. While sports offer numerous psychological benefits, they can also expose individuals to unique challenges that affect their well-being. 

The mental health impacts of participating in sports are extensive. From bolstering self-esteem and regulating emotions to fostering social connections and building resilience, the benefits of sports on mental well-being are undeniable. Individuals’ participation in sports not only strengthens their bodies but also nurtures their minds. 

While sports offers these many benefits, it's crucial to recognize that they can also have negative consequences for mental health. The pressures, injuries, social expectations, burnout and body image issues can all contribute to adverse psychological outcomes among athletes.

POSITIVE MENTAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF SPORTS

Participation in sports extends beyond physical fitness and competition. Engaging in sports has a profound impact on mental health, offering a range of psychological benefits that contribute to overall well-being. From boosting self-esteem to reducing stress, the effects of sports on mental health are becoming increasingly evident in research and everyday life. 

Enhanced Self-Esteem & Confidence

One of the most notable psychological benefits of engaging in sports is the significant boost in self-esteem and self-confidence, since participating in sports allows individuals to set and achieve personal goals, fostering a profound sense of accomplishment. Notably, Smith et al. (2019) found that athletes often exhibit higher self-esteem and a more positive self-image compared to non-athletes, and that consistent success in sports can translate into greater self-assurance in other areas of life, as well.[1] Additionally, Warburton et al. (2006) found that feeling physically fit and healthy can significantly boost an individual's self-esteem and self-confidence.[2]

Stress Reduction & Emotional Regulation

The Cleveland Clinic (2022) notes that regular physical activity releases endorphins which help relieve pain, reduce stress and improve mood.[3] Notably, Craft & Perna (2004) found that exercise through sports can lead to reduced stress, alleviation of symptoms related to anxiety and depression and improved emotional well-being.[4]

Social Interaction & Connection

Team sports, in particular, offer a unique opportunity for social interaction and the establishment of strong connections. The social connection formed through shared victories and defeats can lead to strong and lasting relationships. Jones et al. (2018) found that these social bonds among teammates can serve as a protective factor against mental health issues such as loneliness and depression.[5] Especially for individuals susceptible to feelings of isolation or loneliness, the sports environment can offer a supportive network that positively contributes to mental health.[6]

Lauren Becker Rubin, a former collegiate athlete at Brown University and current advisor to Haverford College’s varsity teams, spoke in depth about this topic in The Seattle Psychiatrist Interview Series. She explains that social connection is one of the biggest benefits of sports participation.[7] Particularly in being part of a team, individuals can find meaning in a sense of purpose while working together towards a common goal. She notes that there is a shared humanity in the wins, but more importantly also in the losses, as team members act as a support system for one another. Within the sports and team community there is group connection, fun, shared experience and striving for something bigger than oneself.[8]  

Improved Body Image & Self-Perception

Sports promote physical activity and fitness, which can contribute to improvements in physique and overall health. Thus, engaging in regular exercise can lead to a more positive body image and self-perception. Adams et al. (2020) note that as individuals see the positive changes in their bodies through training and participation, they often develop a greater appreciation for their physical selves, leading to increased self-acceptance and reduced body dissatisfaction.[9]

Goal-Setting Motivation

Goal setting is a common aspect of sports participation, whether it's achieving a personal best, improving a skill or winning a championship. The process of establishing, working towards and attaining these goals can significantly boost motivation, resilience and provide individuals with a sense of purpose. Emmons & McCullough (2003) highlighted the positive correlation between goal achievement and psychological well-being and found that engaging in goal-setting activates the brain's reward systems, releasing dopamine and reinforcing feelings of accomplishment.[10] 

Strengthened Mental Resilience

Participating in sports often involves facing challenges, setbacks, and even failures. These experiences help build mental resilience by teaching individuals how to adapt, learn from mistakes and persist. The skills learned in sports participation are transferable to other aspects of life, helping individuals manage stressors and overcome hardship with greater ease. Notably, Johnson et al. (2021) found sports participation enhances mental toughness and the ability to bounce back from life’s adversities.[11] 

Lauren Becker Rubin also discussed resilience in her interview, explaining that athletics builds resilience simply through the unpredictable nature of sports.[12] Never knowing if you’re going to win or lose makes us more adaptable and encourages us to learn how to manage emotions around unpredictable outcomes. Rubin notes that the resilience in sports is correlated to life: “There's ups and downs, there's good things, there's bad things. You have to learn to be able to manage your emotions around that and athletics really helps you do that.”[13] 

NEGATIVE MENTAL HEALTH IMPACTS OF SPORTS

While sports are celebrated for their many physical and psychological benefits, it's also important to acknowledge that sports participation isn't always a source of positive mental health. For some individuals, the pressures, expectations and experiences associated with sports can lead to negative psychological outcomes. 

Performance Anxiety & Stress

The competitive nature of sports can lead to high levels of performance anxiety and stress. In the Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, Stress et al. (2018) note that athletes are susceptible to performance-related anxiety, which can have adverse effects on mental health.[14] Athletes may experience overwhelming pressure to perform consistently at their best, which can result in debilitating stress and anxiety. 

Rubin speaks to performance anxiety in her interview and explains how the public stage athletes are on opens the door to stress, anxiety, pressure, worry and fear. Athletes’ fear is multifaceted, as she describes there is “fear of losing, fear of winning, fear of embarrassment, fear of getting injured, fear of losing social status, fear of losing your position - so there's a lot of fear, worry, stress and anxiety about performing.”[15] These stressors affect athletes both on and off the field as these fears do not always subside once someone is away from the competition.

Injury-Related Mental Health Issues & Identity Crisis

Injuries are a common part of sports, and they can have serious impacts on an athlete's mental health. Whether an athlete suffers a season-ending injury, one that sidelines them for a handful of games or one that only limits their performance, Timpka et al. (2017) explain how the physical pain and the fear of lost opportunities can lead to symptoms of depression, anxiety and even post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).[16]

In her interview, Rubin acknowledges injury-related mental health issues, particularly concerning a loss of identity. When an athlete or individual suffers an injury it can affect their sense of self, especially if participation in sports is a part of one's daily life.[17] Often, athletes have been athletes for much of their lives, so when a time comes where they cannot play or their role has changed, an identity issue can arise. Even retirement from a sports career can be mentally and emotionally challenging, as athletes often face an identity crisis when their sporting journey ends. In particular, Lavallee et al. (2012) note that the transition to a life outside of sports can lead to feelings of loss, depression, and anxiety.[18] 

Social Pressure & Isolation

Despite the comradery, sports can be isolating for some individuals, particularly those who struggle to meet the expectations of their peers, coaches or parents. Smith et al. (2020) notes athletes’ fear of judgment or rejection can lead to social anxiety and feelings of isolation.[19] Failing to meet the expectations of others, self-shame and the pressure to succeed can have adverse effects on one’s mental health.

Rubin speaks to the pressure all athletes face while performing on a public stage, but notes that it is increasingly challenging the more competitive the participation becomes. She describes how social media, fans, money, and contracts are just a few aspects of the pressure elite athletes face on a daily basis. While recreational sports have their own unique set of stressors as well, Rubin describes that the “pressure, stress, anxiety, worry, isolation, just really ramps up the higher you get” in competition.[20] 

Burnout & Overtraining

Raedeke et al. (2002) stress the links between burnout and negative mental health outcomes in athletes.[21] The drive for success in sports can often lead to overtraining and burnout, which can result in physical and mental exhaustion. Additionally, athletes may lose their passion for the sport, experience symptoms of depression and face difficulties in other aspects of life (e.g., relationships, school or work). Overtraining and burnout are especially problematic among competitive athletes, who often spend most of their free time training, with few days off from training per year,

Eating Disorders & Body Image Issues

Sports that emphasize weight and appearance (e.g., gymnastics, wrestling) can contribute to the rise of eating disorders and body image issues. Joy et al. (2016) found there is a high prevalence of eating disorders among athletes due to the physical demands of sports as well as unhealthy expectations of physique, diet and exercise.[22] Athletes may develop unhealthy relationships with food and their bodies, which can have lasting psychological effects. 

It's essential to provide support and resources for athletes throughout their careers to address these mental health challenges and create a more balanced, nurturing sports environment. Regardless of age and level, this support includes promoting mental health awareness, reducing stigma for those who are suffering, providing access to mental health professionals and fostering a culture that values athletes' well-being over their performance or success.

If someone or someone you know is struggling with the stressors of competing in sports, reach out to a licensed mental health professional (e.g., a psychotherapist, psychologist or psychiatrist) for additional guidance and support. 

Contributed by: Jordan Denaver

Editor: Jennifer (Ghahari) Smith, Ph.D.

REFERENCES

1 Smith, J., et al. (2019). Psychological correlates of university athletes and nonathletes: An exploration of the mental health hypothesis. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 41(2), 97-103.

2 Warburton, D. E., Nicol, C. W., & Bredin, S. S. (2006). Health benefits of physical activity: The evidence. CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal, 174(6), 801-809.

3 Cleveland Clinic. (2022, May 19). Endorphins: What they are and how to boost them. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/23040-endorphins

4 Craft, L. L., & Perna, F. M. (2004). The Benefits of Exercise for the Clinically Depressed. Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 6(3), 104-111.

5 Jones, A., et al. (2018). The Impact of Team Sports on Mental Health in Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 42(1), 3-22.

6 Ibid.

7 Denaver, J. E., & Rubin, L. B. (2023). Certified Mental Performance Coach Lauren Becker Rubin on the Mental Health of Athletes. Seattle Anxiety Specialists, PLLC. https://seattleanxiety.com/psychology-psychiatry-interview-series/2023/7/14/certified-mental-performance-coach-lauren-becker-rubin-on-the-mental-health-of-athletes

8 Ibid.

9 Adams, K., et al. (2020). Sports involvement and body image: The mediating role of physical activity and body composition. Journal of Eating Disorders, 8(1), 1-12.

10 Emmons, R. A., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Counting blessings versus burdens: An experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective well-being in daily life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 377-389.

11 Johnson, R., et al. (2021). The relationship between sports participation, resilience, and mental health in college athletes. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 43(3), 195-203.

12 Denaver & Rubin (2023)

13 Ibid.

14 Stress, A. B., et al. (2018). Performance Anxiety and Coping in Athletes. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 40(6), 292-301.

15 Denaver & Rubin (2023)

16 Timpka, T., et al. (2017). The Psychological Health of Injured Athletes. Journal of Athletic Training, 52(3), 231-238.

17 Denaver & Rubin (2023)

18 Lavallee, D., et al. (2012). Retirement from Sport and the Loss of Athletic Identity. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 24(4), 362-379.

19 Smith, R. E., et al. (2020). Interpersonal Stressors and Resources as Predictors of Athlete Burnout. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 42(1), 65-75.

20 Denaver & Rubin (2023)

21 Raedeke, T. D., Lunney, K., & Venables, K. (2002). Understanding athletes burnout: Coach perspectives. Journal of Sport Behavior, 25(2), 181.

22 Joy, E., et al. (2016). Prevalence of Eating Disorders and Pathogenic Weight Control Behaviors Among NCAA Division I Female Collegiate Gymnasts and Swimmers. Journal of Eating Disorders, 4(1), 19.

Developments in Art Therapy for Mental Health

What Words Can’t Express 

The process of making art, like literature, has long been shown to have mental and emotional health benefits. The APA describes art therapy as a type of psychotherapy that helps provide a way to express emotions and experiences not easily expressed in words.[1] The artist Georgia O’Keeffe said, “I found I could say things with color and shapes that I couldn’t say any other way – things I had no words for.” 

The American Art Therapy Association explains that art therapy includes active art-making, the creative process, and applied psychological theory - within a psychotherapeutic relationship - to enrich the lives of individuals, families, and communities.[2] Furthermore, art therapy is used to foster self-esteem and self-awareness, cultivate emotional resilience, promote insight, enhance social skills and reduce conflicts and distress. Although art therapy has been used to treat a range of mental health disorders including anxiety and depression, this type of therapy is particularly applicable to survivors of trauma because the nonverbal and experiential character of art therapy appears to be an appropriate approach to the often “wordless and visual nature of traumatic memories.”[3]

MechanismS of Art Therapy  

Art therapy engages the mind, body, and spirit in ways that are distinct from verbal communication. In an article published in the Journal of the American Art Therapy Association, Lusebrink 2010 differentiates art therapy from verbal therapies by the use of art media as a means of expression and communication, the multileveled meaning present in visual expressions, and the therapeutic effects of the creative process.[4] In a schematic framework known as the Expressive Therapies Continuum (ETC), three distinct levels (kinesthetic/sensory, perceptual/affective, and cognitive/symbolic) reflect different functions and structures in the brain that process visual and affective information.[5]  

This is particularly useful because the art therapist can first assess the client’s cognitive and emotional functioning through these different ETC levels in order to better address their strengths, challenges, and progress in art therapy. For example, Hendler et al. (2001) found that in individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), affectively-charged visual stimuli activate limbic regions and sensory areas of the cerebral cortex but not the prefrontal area. This is significant, as visual processing within non-PTSD individuals does include the prefrontal cortex which is critically involved in the emergence of conscious visual perception. On the other hand, client areas of strength would constitute a lack of difficulty in processing visual information on particular levels of the ETC. This framework is useful for helping art therapists determine where the “missing links'' are in terms of the sequence of visual information processing. 

These assessments can act as guidelines for starting points, pathways, and goals in art therapy.[6] The range of kinesthetic, sensory, perceptual, and symbolic opportunities also allow clients to practice and create alternative modes of expressive communication, which can help circumvent the limitations of language.[7] 

Art Therapy Sessions 

Though one can always choose to pursue the arts on their own time to calm and relax the mind, formal art therapy sessions are typically carried out by licensed clinicians, master's-level or higher degree holders trained in art and therapy work. Art therapists work with diverse populations in a variety of settings including hospitals, schools, veterans’ clinics, private practice and psychiatric and rehabilitation facilities.[8] One may choose to engage in a private art therapy session or a group setting with other individuals. 

Before beginning, it is important for the therapist to emphasize that the client does not need to be artistically or creatively inclined to benefit from this process. During a typical session, clients will engage in both art-making and meaningful conversation with the therapist.[9] The therapist's main goal is to describe the goal of art therapy, help the client choose an appropriate medium for expression (e.g., collage, painting, sculpture, drawing), and prompt the client with questions which will shape and guide the art making session. At the conclusion of the session, the therapist and client will debrief. To make sense of the process, they may collaboratively discuss any emotions and feelings that arose during the art making process, the work of art itself and its potential meanings, as well as plans for future sessions.[10] 

Applications for Addressing Trauma 

Art therapy has historically been used to address and treat trauma for a variety of reasons. Art is an effective means of expressing past trauma from a safe environment; it provides emotional distance from the actual event and provides an alternative outlet to confront unresolved trauma memories through the use of symbols and visual media. Additionally, PTSD UK notes how new research has found that art therapy fosters a mind-body connectedness and allows the brain to use mental and visual imagery.[11]

In 2016, Campbell et al. (2016) conducted research to examine the impact of art therapy on those with combat-related PTSD. They administered a series of art therapy sessions in which participants engaged in creating a visual trauma narrative, mapping representations of their emotions, making images of the self before and after the trauma and creating final reflective art pieces. Results from a depression scale score showed that although not statistically significantly different, a trend toward greater reduction in depression symptoms for the test group compared to the control was noted.[12] Although these quantitative measures did not show statistical significance, a more recent study by Berberian et al. (2019) examined the qualitative outcomes of art therapy, or more specifically, montage painting, for active-duty military service members with traumatic brain injuries or PTSD. They found that group art therapy elicited improvement in interpersonal relatedness, as well as the expression of hopefulness and gratification. Art therapy allowed the individuals to work toward creating an individual trauma narrative which is a key component for recovery and healing.[13]

Aside from veterans and active-duty military service members, PTSD within children and early relational trauma has also been addressed through art therapy. Individuals who have experienced trauma at a young age show increased levels of suicide, alcohol addiction, and/or drug addiction later in life, thus art therapy is especially valuable as an early intervention for children who have been exposed to trauma in a variety of contexts and in different forms (e.g., witnessed or experienced gang violence, bullying, loss and grief, domestic abuse, suicide, homelessness, and drug abuse).[14] A study conducted by Woollett et al. (2020) invited school-aged children and their mothers in domestic violence shelters to participate in a pilot study aiming to integrate trauma-informed art and play therapy with traditional cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). From baseline levels, children's depressive symptoms showed significant reduction and improvement in PTSD symptoms.[15] 

Another specific context which art therapy has been applied to is early relational trauma. This type of trauma is distinct from post-traumatic stress disorder in its emphasis on childhood abuse, various forms of neglect, and other neurological effects that occur during a specific time period when the developing brain was exposed to prolonged trauma.[16] Art therapy can be particularly helpful for early relational trauma clients who exhibit anger and frustration as they struggle to confront and articulate their emotions. The art they make is a non-verbal activity that reflects, mirrors and amplifies expression of the client's internal state of affects. A study by Chong (2015) presented a collection of clinical vignettes in which she notes that school-aged children with early relational trauma showed improvement in dimensions such as confidence, attention span, and the formation of positive relationships in school settings.[17]

Within communities of all ages and backgrounds, art therapy is a flexible, effective and low-intensity intervention for individuals dealing with trauma which can cultivate a greater sense of creativity, empowerment, and independence while fostering a healthy psychosocial relationship with themselves and others.[18] 

If you or someone you know would like to learn more about art therapy and how to incorporate it into your own life, please reach out to a licensed mental health professional (e.g., a psychotherapist, psychologist or psychiatrist) for additional guidance and support.  

Contributed by: Kaylin Ong

Editor: Jennifer (Ghahari) Smith, Ph.D.

References 

1 (2020, January 30). Healing Through Art - APA Blogs - Patients and Families. American Psychiatric Association. https://www.psychiatry.org/news-room/apa-blogs/healing-through-art#:~:text=Art%20therapy%2C%20a%20type%20of,the%20process%20of%20making%20art 

2 American Art Therapy Association. (2014). American Art Therapy Association. https://arttherapy.org/ 

3 Schouten, K. A., van Hooren, S., Knipscheer, J. W., Kleber, R. J., & Hutschemaekers, G. J. M. (2018). Trauma-Focused Art Therapy in the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Pilot Study. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 20(1), 114–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/15299732.2018.1502712 

4 Lusebrink, V. B. (2010). Assessment and Therapeutic Application of the Expressive Therapies Continuum: Implications for Brain Structures and Functions. Art Therapy, 27(4), 168–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/07421656.2010.10129380

5 Expressive Therapies Continuum: Three-Part Healing Harmony | Psychology Today. (December 30, 2018). Www.psychologytoday.com. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/arts-and-health/201812/expressive-therapies-continuum-three-part-healing-harmony 

6 Lusebrink (2010) 

7 American Art Therapy Association 

8 Ibid. 

9 Homepage - The British Association Of Art Therapists. (2022, September 26). The British Association of Art Therapists; BAAT. https://baat.org/ 

10 What Is Art Therapy? | Psychology.org. (2022, February 15). Www.psychology.org. https://www.psychology.org/resources/what-is-art-therapy/#:~:text=During%20a%20session%2C%20an%20art 

11 How art therapy has helped those with PTSD – PTSD UK. (n.d.). https://www.ptsduk.org/how-art-therapy-has-helped-those-with-ptsd/ 

12 Campbell, M., Decker, K. P., Kruk, K., & Deaver, S. P. (2016). Art Therapy and Cognitive Processing Therapy for Combat-Related PTSD: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Art Therapy, 33(4), 169–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/07421656.2016.1226643 

13 Berberian, M., Walker, M. S., & Kaimal, G. (2018). “Master My Demons”: art therapy montage paintings by active-duty military service members with traumatic brain injury and post-traumatic stress. Medical Humanities, 45(4), 353–360. https://doi.org/10.1136/medhum-2018-011493 

14 Helping Kids Cope with Trauma. (October 20, 2017). Cedars-Sinai. https://www.cedars-sinai.org/blog/art-therapy-helps-children-cope-with-trauma.html#:~:text=Art%20therapy%20teaches%20kids%20how 

15 Woollett, N., Bandeira, M., & Hatcher, A. (2020). Trauma-informed art and play therapy: Pilot study outcomes for children and mothers in domestic violence shelters in the United States and South Africa. Child Abuse & Neglect, 107(1), 104564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104564 

16 Terradas, M. M., Poulin-Latulippe, D., Paradis, D., & Didier, O. (2020). Impact of early relational trauma on children’s mentalizing capacity and play: A clinical illustration. European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 100160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejtd.2020.100160 

17 Chong, C. Y. J. (2015). Why art psychotherapy? Through the lens of interpersonal neurobiology: The distinctive role of art psychotherapy intervention for clients with early relational trauma. International Journal of Art Therapy, 20(3), 118–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/17454832.2015.1079727 

18 Boyadjis, A. (2019). Healing the Child Through Expressive Arts Therapy. https://minds.wisconsin.edu/bitstream/handle/1793/79197/Boyadjis%2C%20Andrea%20Thesis%202019%20compiled.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y 

Understanding the Effects of Temporary Parent-Child Separation

The Commonality of Temporary Parent-Child Separation

Many children around the world experience a temporary separation from a parent for a variety of reasons. The United Nations estimates that 232 million people live and work outside of their native countries; as a result, their children experience temporary separations from one or more parents.[1] Children may also experience temporary absences from their parents due to a parent being deployed in the military; in the United States 1.2 million children have a parent on active duty and 730,000 have a parent on reserve military status. An additional 1.7 million U.S. children experience a separation from a parent due to incarceration.[2] Since children depend on their parents to successfully navigate stressful and traumatic events, parental separation can at times be considered a toxic stressor.[3]

Overall effects

As with any early life stress, parental separation takes a physical and psychological toll. Experiencing extreme stressors at a young age put children at risk for anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), lower IQ, obesity, decreased immune system functioning, cancer, heart and lung disease, stroke and morbidity.[4] Younger children are shown to be more likely to experience maladaptation immediately following separation and have diminishing problems over time.[5] However, the effects of parental separation can follow a child into adulthood, including increased risk for mental health problems, poor social functioning, insecure attachment and disrupted stress reactivity.[6] Additionally, stressors during adolescence can have lasting effects that do not become evident until adulthood.[7] 

Stages of childhood development also play a role in the effects of temporary separation as children left behind in the ages of 5-8 may experience delayed cognitive development. Further, adolescents that have been left behind/separated from their parent are more likely to take on greater responsibility for the family and perform more routine household tasks, increasing the adolescent’s vulnerability and potentially leading them to risky behaviors (e.g., alcohol consumption, smoking).[8]

The role of gender 

Multiple studies have revealed that the gender of both the child and the parent can play a role in the subsequent effects of temporary parent-child separation. In regards to temporary migrations, Antman’s research (2012) found that daughters who had their father migrate from Mexico to the United States when they were young were tied to higher educational attainment.[9] Antman’s findings tie with previous research that has found paternal migration is not always a stress factor for children left behind and can in times be tied with favorable well-being outcomes due to the changing social status experienced.[10] A study by Mazzucato et al. (2011), found that the effects of a migrating mother are more complex. While families tend to experience economic gain when the father or mother migrate for work,[11] Parrenas (2005) notes that the absence of a mother can lead to increased emotional problems in children (due to the disruption in traditional gender norms regarding child care).[12] 

Effects of the different kinds of separations 

Different kinds of temporary separation bring about their own complex effects on the children left behind. 

• Incarceration: Children of incarcerated parents have greater odds of antisocial behavior in their youth, which may be tied to the stigma attached to incarceration making it more difficult for youth to search and find social support.[13] 

• Migration: Individual studies on the effects of parental migration have reported youth have higher risk of diminished happiness, academic performance and social support seeking along with increased depressive symptoms.[14] The Society for Research in Child Development reports there is an increased mental health risk for both parents and children when they are separated in the immigration process. The Society furthers that native United States children who witness a parent’s border detention or deportation are at an increased risk of developing mental health problems (e.g., anxiety, depression, behavior problems, symptoms of PTSD).[15]

• Military Deployment: Rodriguez et al. (2015) note that meta-analyses have shown statistically significant small increases over time in children’s mental health problems, behavior problems and school problems linked to parental military deployments.[16] Different kinds of deployments can also have different degrees of effects. Rodriguez et al. add that wartime deployments and deployments to an area directly involved in war are linked with increased distress and mental health problems among family members.[17] However, youth and parental ratings of family functioning are shown to improve with an increasing number of military deployments, most likely due to becoming accustomed with the situation.[18]

Communication is Key

Despite the afore-mentioned negatives, temporary parent-child separations can be an opportunity to foster quality communication between the parent and child, creating resilience in children. The level of communication between parent and child can have great effects on the child’s mental health and overall acclimation to a change in family functioning. Zhou et al. (2021) found that low frequency of parent-child communication put children aged 7-17 at higher risk for developing depressive symptoms; conversely, high frequency of communication was tied with enhanced quality of life for the children left behind/separated.[19] It has also been shown that youth who have contact with their incarcerated parents report less alienation and anger in regards to the incarcerated parent, and are less likely to have school problems.[20] 

Quality communication between the parent and child helps to foster resilience, the ability to recover from stressful experiences quickly and efficiently. Building such resilience is a great skill for any child to have since it can help them overcome the eventual hurdles of life. Other ways caregivers can foster resilience in children include:[21,22]

• Explaining where and why the parent is leaving in advance of the departure 

• Allowing the child to take part in leave-taking rituals (e.g., allowing the child to say goodbye to the parent even if the child is very young)

• Trying to create routine and sticking to it (even when the parent returns)

• Creating a safe environment for the child to speak freely

• Acknowledging and validating the child’s concerns 

• Reassuring the child they are not alone

• Encouraging active play and skill building to teach children problem-solving skills in a fun setting

• Sharing honest and age-appropriate information with the child

After a separation some sadness is completely normal, but if adjustment is not seen after a few weeks, there may be cause for concern. It may be helpful to increase the love, attention, and affection to the child and to encourage them to express their feelings.[23] Since it is common for caregivers to feel overwhelmed with responsibilities, asking other trusted adults for help can improve the situations for both caregiver and child.[24] If you feel like you or your child are experiencing negative emotional or behavioral effects due to a separation, please consider seeking licensed child- or family-counseling for help in navigating the situation. 

Contributed by: Maria Karla Bermudez

Editor: Jennifer (Ghahari) Smith, Ph.D.

1 Rodriguez, A. J., & Margolin, G. (2015). Parental incarceration, transnational migration, and military deployment: Family process mechanisms of youth adjustment to temporary parent absence. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 18(1), 24-49. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-014-0176-0

2 Ibid. 

3 The science is clear: Separating families has long-term damaging psychological and health consequences for children, families, and Communities. Society for Research in Child Development SRCD. (2018). Retrieved March 10, 2023, from https://www.srcd.org/briefs-fact-sheets/the-science-is-clear 

4 Ibid. 

5 Ibid. 

6 Rodriguez (2015)

7 SRCD (2018)

8 Antia, K., Boucsein, J., Deckert, A., Dambach, P., Račaitė, J., Šurkienė, G., Jaenisch, T., Horstick, O., & Winkler, V. (2020). Effects of International Labour Migration on the Mental Health and Well-Being of Left-Behind Children: A Systematic Literature Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124335

9 Antman F. M. (2012). Gender, Educational Attainment, and the Impact of Parental Migration on Children Left Behind. Journal of population economics, 25(4), 1187–1214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-012-0423-y

10 Antia et al., (2020)

11  Mazzucato, V., & Schans, D. (2011). Transnational Families and the Well-Being of Children: Conceptual and Methodological Challenges. Journal of marriage and the family, 73(4), 704–712. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2011.00840.x

12  Parrenas, R. S. (2005). Children of global migration: Transnational families and gendered woes. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

13 Rodriguez (2015)

14 SRCD (2018)

15 Ibid. 

16 Rodriguez (2015)

17 Ibid. 

18 Ibid. 

19 Zhou, C., Lv, Q., Yang, N., & Wang, F. (2021). Left-Behind Children, Parent-Child Communication and Psychological Resilience: A Structural Equation Modeling Analysis. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(10), 5123. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105123

20 Rodriguez (2015)

21 Church, C. (n.d.). Helping children through a parent's deployment. SMART Couples - University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences - UF/IFAS. Retrieved March 12, 2023, from https://smartcouples.ifas.ufl.edu/married/military-couples-corner-/helping-children-through-a-parents-deployment/ 

22 Martoma, R. (2020, July 1). Tips to support children when a parent is in prison. HealthyChildren.org. Retrieved March 12, 2023, from https://www.healthychildren.org/English/healthy-living/emotional-wellness/Building-Resilience/Pages/Tips-to-Support-Children-When-a-Parent-is-in-Prison.aspx 

23 Church (n.d.)

24 Martoma (2020)

Advertising in Dreams: Potential Impacts on the Human Psyche

Counting Sheep or Counting Coors

Though it sounds like science described in a dystopian Orwell novel, the next target for advertisers is consumer’s dreams. Moutinho (2021) notes that companies such as Xbox and Burger King have already teamed up with dream researchers to engineer techniques that will lead consumers to envision their products as they sleep.[1]

One of the most famous experiments to-date was conducted by Coors Brewing Company In 2021. Protocol involved participants watching an advertisement featuring their product, along with waterfalls and mountains, three times before falling asleep; an 8-hour soundscape played while they slept.[2,3] The ultimate goal of the campaign was to compel over 100 million viewers to dream of Coors the night before the Superbowl, and incentives were provided to share the commercial with a friend to receive either a discounted or free twelve-pack.[4] The limited published results of the Coors experiment, which consisted of 18 participants, resulted in five people who dreamt about Coors products.[5] While only 28% of respondents acted as Coors intended, the stage was set to refine the work to garner a higher payout.

Burger King similarly launched a campaign in 2018 when the company teamed up with Florida Sleep & Neuro Diagnostic Services, Inc. Together, they produced the “Nightmare King'' burger for Halloween which included a “ghoulish green” bun and could be accompanied by a frozen black Fanta called, “Scary Black Cherry.”[6] Researchers found this burger increased the incidence of nightmares 3.5 times [7] with one participant reporting dreaming about a person turning into a burger and then a giant snake.[8] 

Research aimed at advertising in dreams is not unique to these two companies. In 2021, a study by the American Marketing Association found that of 400 marketers surveyed, 77% planned to utilize dream-marketing techniques within three years.[9] Robert Stickgold, a Harvard neuroscientist, has warned the public, “They are coming for your dreams, and most people don’t even know they can do it.”[10]

While this may seem to many to be an invasion of privacy, there are currently no regulations addressing advertisements in dreams.[11] Researchers have warned that companies could potentially use the smart speakers that 40 million Americans currently have in their bedrooms to monitor the state of a person’s sleep and then passively advertise to them during dreams without permission.[12] The Federal Trade Commission (FTC), which currently restricts some forms of subliminal advertising, could pass regulations preventing this practice, but so far, they have not done so.[13]

Why do people dream?

Throughout recorded history, humans have often struggled to understand the purpose of dreams and theories have changed throughout history and across cultures. The belief of dreams as methods of prediction was common in ancient times, with the Greeks believing they were portals that could be used to see the future and the Romans believing they were messages sent by the Gods.[14] Similarly, records dating back as early as 1046 BC show oneiromancy (the process of interpreting dreams to foretell future events) was regularly used in ancient China.[15]

By the eighteenth-century, the prominent Western belief went to the extreme of denouncing dreams as a mental derangement which interrupted sleep,[16] but this notion was soon replaced with the Freudian notion that dreams were a method of fulfilling repressed desires.[17] This led to a shift in the post-Freudian era with the idea that dreaming is essential to a person’s well-being.[18]

The past decade has shown significant progress in using technology to understand the science of sleep, but the purpose of dreams is still debated.[19] Modern psychology tends to have two prominent theories of why people dream: one believes that dreams are simply a byproduct of the process of sleeping and the other believes that dreams are revealing hidden information.[20] There is also the thought that dreams are a continuation of waking thoughts and can be used to solve problems in real life.[21] However, scientists are still conducting research and new theories on the purpose of dreams continue to be proposed.

One recent explanation, known as “null theory,” suggests dreams are an evolutionary process that prevent human beings from being physically active while they rest at night.[22] In contrast, Hobson’s theory of protoconsciosness compares the brain in the state of REM sleep to a virtual reality generator using instances of real-world interactions to create possible predictions of time and space.[23] Another proposed theory on the purpose of dreams is the Synaptic Homeostasis Hypothesis (SHH), which postulates that during the day new learning can cause a saturation of synaptic weight, which needs to be downscaled during sleep to avoid learning saturation.[24] Evidence also suggests that it is while dreaming that the brain organizes memories, determining what information to keep, what can be forgotten, and how much detail to remember.[25]

Though dreaming was previously believed to only occur during REM sleep, recent experiments have shown it can actually take place across different sleep stages.[26] This raises another question as to whether dreams may have different purposes during different stages of the sleeping process.[27]

Despite the debate of what dreams are, there is a general notion that breakthroughs to problems can be found in dreams. Both modern scientists and mathematicians have reported struggling to find answers during the day, only to have the answer later revealed in their dreaming state.[28] Clinicians who treat those with terminal illness often view dreaming as an intrinsic part of the process of dying in which patients can gain new insight, create plans to resolve unfinished business, change to a new way of thinking, and address concerns about the legacy they are leaving behind.[29]

In the waking world, recalled dreams can be used as a catalyst for creative projects, shared with others to increase intimacy, or analyzed in a therapy session to address concerns.[30] The cognitive-experiential model of dreamwork is based on the premise that a sleeping mind attempts to integrate experiences from the waking world into preexisting beliefs and memories of past experiences.[31] In this process, a therapist takes the client through “exploration” (a retelling of what was dreamt), “insight” (a method of finding interpretations, connections or meaning in the dream), and “action” (the stage where a person makes a plan based on the insight provided by the dream).[32]

Can the experience of dreams be influenced?

Dream incubation (using a technique to cause a specific dream to occur) dates back thousands of years with the earliest reference found on the Chester Beatty papyri, dating back to Egypt in 1350 BC.[33] The illustration showed a method of evoking the wisdom of the dwarf deity Besa by drawing on the hand and then covering the hand and neck prior to sleep.[34] In ancient Greece, ailing people engaged in a practice of sacred rituals and then slept in oracular temples waiting for the god of medicine, Asclepius, to reveal the cure through a dream.[35] More recently, it is believed that the artist Salvador Dali tried to enhance creativity by falling asleep with a spoon in his hand, so that the noise of it falling would wake him up and allow him to remember when he had just been dreaming.[36]

Researchers are currently testing multiple methods of influencing the dream process. One practice of manipulating dreams to achieve a specific goal is called Targeted Dream Incubation (TDI).[37] It works by pairing a visual image with a sound or scent while a person is awake and emitting the sound or scent while a person is drifting off to sleep to trigger a memory of the item.[38] Another technique is a process called Targeted Memory Reactivation (TMR), which uses unobtrusive tools, such as audible words, to stimulate thoughts within the brain.[39] There have also been studies incorporating the Tetris Effect, the notion that people will begin dreaming about something they are repeatedly exposed to during the day; a phenomenon that was observed when participants who played Tetris for seven hours a day over three days reported seeing visions of playing the game as they fell asleep.[40,41]

Can influencing dreams be beneficial?

Dream manipulation may have positive impacts, and researchers have been actively developing dream incubation techniques to help people achieve their goals in the modern world. Ai et al., (2018) notes that targeted Memory Reactivation (TMR) has previously been used successfully to learn vocabulary, overcome fears, reduce social bias, and improve motor memory.[42] Delbert (2021) adds that Targeted Dream Incubation (TDI) can also be used to minimize addictive behavior, as illustrated by a study that exposed sleeping participants to the smell of rotten eggs and cigarettes, creating an association among the two that resulted in participants smoking 30% less in the following days.[43] In another example, researchers at MIT developed an interactive social robot, named Dormio, that can track a human’s sleep patterns and interact with hypnagogic microdreams with the goal of increasing creativity.[44]

The impact of advertising in dreams

There is a predominant understanding that dreaming is essential for a person to function and that not dreaming at all, or damaged dreaming, can lead to memory loss, inflammation, obesity, Alzheimer’s disease, anxiety, and depression.[45] It has also recently come to light that lucid dreaming (the practice of knowing one is dreaming while asleep), a process that may be beneficial, can be associated with the risk of disruptions in both the quality of sleep and the reality/fantasy boundary.[46] Carr et al., (2020) note this leads to a concern as to whether manipulating dreams, even if it is for a benefit perceived to be positive, could cause damage by interrupting the natural therapeutic process that takes place in a normal state of dreaming.[47]

Since the science of advertising in dreams is still being developed, the consequences are currently unknown; however, those who work in the field of dream research are showing concern. In response to the new application of advertising in dreams, 35 dream and sleep researchers contributed to an open letter warning of the potential consequences.[48] The letter warns that though altering dreams can have beneficial applications, such as boosting a person’s mood or alleviating the symptoms of PTSD, it could also be used to increase addiction (e.g.; Coors association of alcohol with flowing waterfalls).[49]

Some scientists involved with research in this field have also drafted A Dream Engineering Ethic (a living document still in development) which proposes guidelines for any dream research that targets the manipulation of memories, changing the substance of dreams, and altering specific habits.[50] This statement emphasizes the potential benefits of dream engineering (enhanced learning, therapeutic benefits, addiction treatment, enhanced creativity, and nightmare abatement) while simultaneously warning about the perils of, “the infiltration of our most private spaces by those who wish to harm or manipulate us.”[51]

Madhavi et al., (2019) notes that human beings tend to give more value to thoughts perceived to be generated from within, than those that can be attributed to external stimuli.[52] While the potential for a positive impact of dream manipulation exists, dream researchers are concerned that less desirable outcomes, such as influencing a person’s political views or sexual attraction, are possible.[53] The nature of dream manipulation requires that a person be unaware of the stimuli presented, since the person should not be awakened, which poses the problem of the subject having no control over the exposure.[54] With the potential power that suggestibility during sleep can have in a person’s daily decisions, questions arise as to how much of a human’s personality can be altered through this process. Since people often consider preferences for particular food, shows, activities, and hobbies as part of their individual identity, the question is then raised as to whether a company’s manipulation of these choices during the process of dreaming can alter the essential thoughts that make a person who they are.

Contributed by: Theresa Nair

Editor: Jennifer (Ghahari) Smith, Ph.D.

REFERENCES

1 Moutinho S. Are advertisers coming for your dreams?: Scientists warn of efforts to insert commercials into dreams. Science Web site. https://www.science.org/content/article/are-advertisers-coming-your-dreams. Updated 2021. Accessed Oct 24, 2022.

2 Ibid.

3 Orsini J, Rice D. Sweet dreams or nightmares: The future of advertising in dreams. Future of Marketing Institute (FMI) Web site. https://futureofmarketinginstitute.com/sweet-dreams-or-nightmares-the-future-of-advertising-in-dreams/. Updated 2021. Accessed Oct 25, 2022.

4 Stickgold R, Zadra A, Haar A. Advertising in dreams is coming: Now what?:An opinion piece on recent developments in dream incubation technologies and their ethical implications. Dream Engineering|PubPub Web site. https://dxe.pubpub.org/pub/dreamadvertising/release/1. Updated 2021.

5 Moutinho (2021)

6 Handley L. Burger king creates 'nightmare' burger with green bun — and says it will actually give people bad dreams. CNBC Web site. https://www.cnbc.com/2018/10/18/burger-king-creates-nightmare-burger-with-green-bun.html. Updated 2018. Accessed Nov 4, 2022.

7 Reiter A. Burger king says new burger is ‘Clinically proven to induce nightmares’. Food Network Web site. https://www.foodnetwork.com/fn-dish/news/2018/10/burger-king-says-new-burger-is-clinically-proven-to-induce-night. Updated 2018. Accessed Oct 27, 2022.

8 Ibid.

9 Orsini & Rice (2021)

10 Moutinho (2021)

11 Ibid.

12 Stickgold et al. (2021)

13 Gabbatt A. Nightmare scenario: Alarm as advertisers seek to plug into our dreams. The Guardian Web site. http://www.theguardian.com/media/2021/jul/05/advertisers-targeted-dream-incubation. Updated 2021. Accessed Oct 25, 2022.

14 Rani S. Interpretation of dreams: Finding meaning and purpose. Indian journal of health and wellbeing. 2013;4(2):406-.

15 Yu CKC. Imperial dreams and oneiromancy in ancient China—we share similar dream motifs with our ancestors living two millennia ago. Dreaming (New York, NY). Published online 2022. doi:10.1037/drm0000195

16 Dacome L. “To What Purpose Does It Think?”: Dreams, Sick Bodies and Confused Minds in the Age of Reason. History of psychiatry. 2004;15(4):395-416. doi:10.1177/0957154X04041644

17 Rani (2013)

18 Dacome (2004)

19 Hoel E. The overfitted brain: Dreams evolved to assist generalization. Patterns (New York, NY). 2021;2(5):100244-100244. doi:10.1016/j.patter.2021.100244

20 Mahdavi M, Fatehi Rad N, Barbosa B. The Role of Dreams of Ads in Purchase Intention. Dreaming (New York, NY). 2019;29(3):241-252. doi:10.1037/drm0000110

21 Rani (2013)

22 Hoel (2021)

23 Carr M, Haar A, Amores J, et al. Dream engineering: Simulating worlds through sensory stimulation. Consciousness and Cognition. 2020;83. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053810020300325. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2020.102955.

24 Hoel (2021)

25 Stickgold et al. (2021)

26 Hoel (2021)

27 Ibid.

28 Barrett D. ANSWERS IN YOUR DREAMS. Scientific American mind. 2011;22(5):26-33. doi:10.1038/scientificamericanmind1111-26

29 Wright ST, Grant PC, Depner RM, Donnelly JP, Kerr CW. Meaning-centered dream work with hospice patients: A pilot study. Palliative & supportive care. 2015;13(5):1193-1211. doi:10.1017/S1478951514001072

30 Olsen MR, Schredl M, Carlsson I. Sharing Dreams: Frequency, Motivations, and Relationship Intimacy. Dreaming (New York, NY). 2013;23(4):245-255. doi:10.1037/a0033392

31 Wright et al. (2015)

32 Ibid.

33 Carr et al. (2020)

34 Ibid.

35 Dream - psychoanalytic interpretations | britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/dream-sleep-experience/Dreams-as-a-source-of-divination. Accessed Nov 2, 2022.

36 Gabbatt (2021)

37 Crockett Z. Are advertisers going to infiltrate our dreams? The Hustle Web site. https://thehustle.co/are-advertisers-going-to-infiltrate-our-dreams/. Updated 2022. Accessed Oct 25, 2022.

38 Ibid.

39 Ai S, Yin Y, Chen Y, et al. Promoting subjective preferences in simple economic choices during nap. eLife. 2018;7:e40583. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.40583. Accessed Oct 29, 2022. doi: 10.7554/eLife.40583.

40 Haar Horowitz A, Stickgold R, Zadra A. Dreams are a precious resource. don’t let advertisers hack them | aeon essays. Aeon Web site. https://aeon.co/essays/dreams-are-a-precious-resource-dont-let-advertisers-hack-them. Updated 2021. Accessed Oct 29, 2022.

41 Stickgold R, Malia A, Maguire D, Roddenberry D, O’Connor M. Replaying the Game: Hypnagogic Images in Normals and Amnesics. Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science). 2000;290(5490):350-353. doi:10.1126/science.290.5490.350

42 Ai et al. (2018)

43 Delbert C. Advertisers are hijacking your dreams, scientists say. Popular Mechanics Web site. https://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/a36719140/sleep-ads-dream-implantation/. Updated 2021. Accessed Oct 25, 2022.

44 Haar A. Project overview ‹ dormio: Interfacing with dreams. MIT Media Lab Web site. https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/sleep-creativity/overview/. Accessed Oct 31, 2022.

45 Erickson A. Dream deprivation is just as unhealthy as sleep Deprivation—Here’s why. . 2021. https://www.thehealthy.com/sleep/dream-sleep-deprivation/. Accessed Oct 31, 2022.

46 Soffer-Dudek N. Are Lucid Dreams Good for Us? Are We Asking the Right Question? A Call for Caution in Lucid Dream Research. Frontiers in neuroscience. 2019;13:1423-1423. doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.01423

47 Carr et al. (2020)

48 Gabbatt (2021)

49 Stickgold et al. (2021)

50 Haar A, Maes P, Carr M. A dream engineering ethic. Infinite Zero Web site. https://00.pubpub.org/pub/83843x5m/release/1. Updated 2020. Accessed Oct 31, 2022.

51 Ibid.

52 Madhavi et al. (2019)

53 Carr et al. (2020)

54 Ibid.