Sociometer Theory
Overview
The sociometer theory was proposed by psychologist Mark Leary and his colleagues in 1999. The theory suggests that humans use self-esteem to gauge the degree to which others value and accept them. Leary named this internal monitor a “sociometer” and proposed that a person’s level of self-esteem is based on their perceived social acceptance and belongingness.[1]
Sociometer theory provides insights into the psychological processes related to self-esteem and the social aspects of human behavior. It has influenced social psychology and contributed to understanding how self-esteem relates to interpersonal relationships and social dynamics.
Background
Sociometer theory emerged in the late 1990s as a response to questions surrounding self-esteem and social interactions. Self-esteem can be defined as the extent to which an individual perceives the qualities and characteristics within their self-concept as positive.[2] It encompasses their physical self-image, assessment of abilities, alignment with personal values and how others perceive and respond to them. Higher self-esteem is associated with a cumulative positive perception of these factors, while lower self-esteem and feelings of worthlessness are common indicators of depression. The American Psychological Association (APA) notes that maintaining a reasonably high level of self-esteem is considered crucial for mental well-being.[3]
Mark Leary’s research on self-esteem and its relationship to human behavior[4] led to the way social acceptance and rejection affect self-esteem. Self-esteem fluctuates based on individuals’ experiences of social inclusion or exclusion. Positive experiences of social inclusion lead to an increase in self-esteem, indicating a higher perceived social value. Conversely, negative experiences of social exclusion decrease self-esteem, indicating a lower perceived social value. This research caused him to question why self-esteem is so sensitive to interpersonal acceptance and rejection. Leary’s answer was the sociometer theory.
A person’s self-esteem is sensitive to social experiences because it is like a type of monitoring system that gives feedback on degrees of social acceptance and rejection.[5] Through his research, he discovered that “relational value” is one of the critical determinants of self-esteem. Leary describes relational value as the degree to which a person regards his or her relationship with another individual as valuable or important.[6] From there on, he referred to self-esteem as a marker of one’s relational value to other people.[7]
Leary put forth two speculations about self-esteem from his research. First, self-esteem might be an internal gauge of a person’s “inclusionary status.”[8] Second, self-esteem might be driven by a need to avoid social exclusion. To support his claims, Leary conducted five experiments on two fronts to examine the links between:
social acceptance and rejection
emotions and self-esteem
The first study tested the hypothesis that self-esteem was a meter for social inclusion and exclusion. Participants in this study imagined behaving in ways that varied in social desirability. They then rated how they thought others would react toward these behaviors and how they would feel about being accepted or rejected. The results showed that people’s feelings about themselves matched how they thought others would respond to the behaviors regarding social acceptance and rejection.[9]
The second study had participants think of a social situation they had experienced and asked them to indicate how included or excluded they felt. They also rated how they felt about themselves at the time. Based on the findings, Leary and his team concluded that self-feelings essentially served as a substitute for perceived exclusion in most situations.[10]
In the third study, participants completed self-descriptive questionnaires. Participants were led to believe these results were shared with other participants in an effort to later form groups based on what was shared. Participants were given fake feedback assigning them to collaborate with either the 3-person group (inclusion) or alone (exclusion). The findings demonstrated that being excluded from the group significantly lowered someone’s self-esteem.[11]
In the fourth study, participants received acceptance, rejection, or no feedback from an individual. When participants believed that the individual accepted them, it led to more positive self-ratings than feedback indicating that the individual rejected them. This study also found that rejection lowers self-esteem more than acceptance raises it.[12]
In the fifth and final study in the series, participants completed a self-report measure of exclusionary status and two measures of trait self-esteem. Results found a negative correlation between perceptions of being excluded and both measures of self-esteem.[13] In other words, the results showed that when people felt excluded, their self-esteem tended to be lower.
Leary and his colleagues’ studies supported the hypothesis that the level of one’s self-esteem might be an internal gauge of a person’s perceived inclusionary status and paved the way for sociometer theory’s development.[14]
Theoretical Components
The sociometer theory encompasses several fundamental components that explain the role of self-esteem as a sociometer. One crucial aspect is the concept of self-esteem as an internal monitor, which indicates an individual's social acceptance or rejection within a social context. This theory recognizes the innate human need for belonging and acknowledges that social acceptance is a significant determinant of self-esteem.[15] Sociometer theory also stipulates that self-esteem operates as a feedback system. The system fluctuates in response to positive and negative social rejection experiences.[16]
As a sociometer, self-esteem motivates individuals to engage in behaviors that enhance their social status and maintain social bonds. Additionally, it plays a role in regulating emotions, with high self-esteem correlating with positive emotions and low self-esteem correlating with negative emotions in response to social experiences.[17] Self-esteem also influences behavioral tendencies and social interactions, as high self-esteem is associated with positive social behaviors, while low self-esteem may lead to more negative social behaviors.[18] These theoretical components collectively provide a framework for comprehending the sociometer theory's implications on self-esteem, social acceptance, and interpersonal dynamics. They further highlight the importance of social context and relationships in shaping individuals' self-perceptions and emotional experiences.
Discussion
The sociometer theory proposes that self-esteem is an internal monitor or gauge of an individual's social acceptance and belongingness. According to this theory, humans constantly monitor and evaluate their social interactions to determine their level of social acceptance or rejection.[19] This monitoring occurs unconsciously and helps individuals assess how well they fit in or are accepted by others. Leary proposed that self-esteem acts as a feedback system that influences individuals' behavior and social interactions. Self-esteem guides individuals' behaviors to gain social approval, maintain social bonds and avoid exclusion.[20] Leary refers to this feedback system as the sociometer, the internal monitor of social acceptance and rejection. According to sociometer theory, one of the main functions of self-esteem is to motivate individuals to seek social acceptance and maintain social bonds. People strive to maintain a positive level of self-esteem to avoid social rejection and enhance their chances of belongingness.
The theory builds on the assumption that humans, as social beings, have an inherent need for social inclusion and belonging.[21] The need to belong is central to human behavior and social identity. Humans are motivated by the need to belong among the world and their peers. It is vital for individual physical, mental, and emotional health as well as self-esteem. In Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, it is asserted that the need for love and belonging is more important than safety and physiological needs.[22] It is “a fundamental human motivation that refers to the desire to form and maintain close, lasting, and positive social relationships.”[23] A sense of belonging is crucial to humans as a protective factor that helps manage stress and other behavioral issues, such as loneliness and self-esteem. Without a feeling of belonging, humans become susceptible to many adverse effects, such as increased loneliness, low-self esteem, depression, anxiety and even suicide.[24]
Sociometer theory emphasizes the evolutionary importance of social acceptance for human survival and well-being. It suggests that individuals have a fundamental need to be accepted and valued by others. Social acceptance provides a sense of belonging, security, and access to resources, while social rejection threatens these needs. As a result, individuals are motivated to seek social acceptance and avoid social exclusion. The theory highlights how self-esteem fluctuates based on social experiences and motivates individuals to seek social connections.[25]
The sociometer theory has far-reaching implications for various fields, including social psychology, interpersonal relationships and self-perception. It provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the intricate relationship between self-esteem and social dynamics. Sociometer theory deepens our understanding of human social behavior by shedding light on the functions of self-esteem and its influence on interpersonal interactions. Further, Leary's sociometer theory has led to valuable insights into the impact of social interactions on individuals' psychological processes, motivations and behavior.
Contributed by: Jordan Denaver
Editor: Jennifer (Ghahari) Smith, Ph.D.
References
1 Leary, M. R. (2003). Commentary on self-esteem as an interpersonal monitor: The sociometer hypothesis (1995). Psychological Inquiry, 14(3-4), 270-274.
2 American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Apa Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological Association. https://dictionary.apa.org/self-esteem
3 Ibid.
4 Social PsyClips. (2012, May 7). Mark Leary on The Sociometer Theory of Self-Esteem [Video]. Vimeo. https://vimeo.com/41704489
5 Leary, M. R., & Baumeister, R. F. (2000). The nature and function of self-esteem: Sociometer theory. In Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 32, pp. 1-62). Academic Press.
6 Leary, M. R. (2005). Sociometer theory and the pursuit of relational value: Getting to the root of self-esteem. European review of social psychology, 16(1), 75-111.
7 Leary & Baumeister (2000)
8 Leary (2003)
9 Ibid.
10 Leary, M. R., Tambor, E. S., Terdal, S. K., & Downs, D. L. (1995). Self-esteem as an interpersonal monitor: The sociometer hypothesis. Journal of personality and social psychology, 68(3), 523.
11 Leary (2003)
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid.
14 Ibid.
15 Leary & Baumeister (2000)
16 Leary (2005).
17 Leary & Baumeister (2000)
18 Ibid.
19 Ibid.
20 Ibid.
21 Ibid.
22 Maslow, A., & Lewis, K. J. (1987). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Salenger Incorporated, 14(17), 987-990.
23 Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological bulletin, 117(3), 497.
24 Theisen, A. (2022, August 25). Is a sense of belonging important? Mayo Clinic Health System. Retrieved from https://www.mayoclinichealthsystem.org/hometown-health/speaking-of-health/is-having-a-sense-of-belonging-important#:~:text=The%20social%20ties%20that%20accompany,difficult%20times%20in%20our%20lives.
25 Leary & Baumeister (2000)