The Intersectionality of PD in Adolescence
The presentation of a personality disorder in adolescence is complicated by the ongoing debate of whether personality disorders should be diagnosed. Some licensed health professionals are hesitant to provide a diagnosis due to the belief that adolescence is a period of changing personality,[1] thus, it is not appropriate to judge if a personality is disordered. However, other health professionals argue for the benefits of early detection and treatment, leading to better health outcomes.[2] The impacts of the home environment, genetics and consequences of a diagnosis further complicate this debate.
Effects of Home Environment
Childhood maltreatment (e.g., neglect, physical abuse) substantially increases the risk of developing a personality disorder.[3] The Minnesota Project by Sroufe et al. (2005) followed a group of high-risk children into adulthood and found that insecure attachment during childhood is strongly associated with the later development of personality disorders in adolescence.[4] Later studies on Borderline Personality Disorders (BPD) further supported the association of adverse childhood experiences as a risk factor for personality disorders. Marchetti et al. (2022) found that a history of childhood maltreatment was associated with higher levels of BPD in adolescents (average age 16).[5] Furthermore, studies by Xiao et al. (2023) found that adolescents with BPD had higher rates of all the assessed childhood traumas when compared to adolescents with non-disordered personalities; this was especially true for emotional neglect (the most commonly seen childhood trauma).[6]
Effects of Biological Factors
Adolescence is a time of biological change, including those that regulate one’s personality. Throughout adolescence, the brain continues to develop in term of myelination and the formation of synaptic networks; thus, the neural basis for many psychological regulatory systems are still in development.[7] Furthermore, the frontal, temporal and occipital lobes of the brain (which are responsible for response inhibition, emotion regulation, planning and organization) are still developing during adolescence, which may account for the increased impulsivity sometimes seen during this period.[8] The increased levels of sex hormones adolescents are exposed to during puberty also affect mood regulation.[9] Therefore, the developmental changes of adolescence can bring forth impulsivity and mood changes, similar to the changes brought by a personality disorder.
However, studies by Xiao et al. (2023) have found that there are also biological differences in adolescents with personality disorders compared to non-disordered peers.[10] They found that adolescents with Borderline Personality Disorder showed increased Amplitude Low-Frequency Fluctuations in the limbic system (a measure of spontaneous neuronal activity related to the mood swings associated with BPD).[11] Thus, biological factors can also account for differences in the mood swings of adolescents with disordered personalities compared to non-disordered adolescents.
Arguments in favor of a diagnosis
The argument in favor of a diagnosis appeals to the benefits of early diagnosis, specifically: better health outcomes. Paris et al. (2013) report that conditions such as antisocial personality disorders begin in childhood, and as a result of the early onset, psychopathology is more likely to continue.[12] An analysis of personality trait dimensions also supports the early establishment of personality. Studies by Shiner et al. (2009) suggest a continuity from child to adult personality based on findings that certain personality traits (e.g., openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism) in childhood predicted later behaviors.[13] Klimstra et al. (2009) distinguish that personality traits change considerably at the ages of 10-15 years old and then stabilize at the ages of 16-21 years.[14] However, according to Cicchetti et al. (2009), since personality disorders (PD) do not begin in adulthood, early investigation is necessary to develop a lifespan model for treatment.[15] Schmeck (2022) further supports the need for early intervention in personality disorders, arguing that early diagnosis rids the stigma associated with PD and lessens the possibility of long-lasting impairments and disability by facilitating the transition into adulthood.[16]
These benefits of early diagnosis may have been considered by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) since the most recent version of the guide to diagnosing mental disorders has changed its age requirements for diagnosing PD. While earlier versions of the DSM did not allow someone under 18 to be diagnosed, the DSM-5 (the most recent version) allows the diagnosis of a personality disorder in someone under 18 if symptoms are present for at least one year.[17]
Arguments against diagnosis
A study by Laurenssen et al. (2013) found that 57.8% of psychologists working with adolescents acknowledged the existence of personality disorders in this age group; however, only 8.7% of them actually made formal PD diagnoses in the adolescents.[18] The majority of psychologists are reluctant to diagnose adolescents based on the idea that personality is fluid and still developing.[19] Dijk et al. (2021) argue that while personality traits (e.g., openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism) are structurally similar between adolescents and adults, there are developmental differences; for example, adolescents appear to be less conscientious.[20] Some psychologists also argue that an early diagnosis is stigmatizing since personality pathology can often be viewed as being unmodifiable.[21,22] Furthermore, according to Adshead et al. (2012), a misdiagnosis of a personality disorder in adolescence can focus attention away from interventions to improve the caregiving environment, particularly if neglect or abuse are present.[23] Perhaps taking the drawbacks of diagnosis into account, the American Psychiatric Association webpage, as of now, states that diagnosis of personality disorders is only applicable to individuals 18 and older (It is important to note that the American Psychiatric Association oversees the DSM-5).[24]
Treatment of PD in adolescence
Personality disorders vary in the ways they impact an individual’s thoughts and ways of expressing themselves, however, they align in their need for treatment to go away.[25] In adults certain psychotherapies (e.g., Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT), Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Group Therapy, Psychoanalytic) have shown to be effective for treating personality disorder.[26] If an adolescent is diagnosed with a personality disorder, their treatment plans may differ slightly from adults. Adolescent treatment plans are complex due to a current need for more evidence if adult interventions also work for adolescents.[27] Furthermore, these treatment plans are unique as they often incorporate the adolescent’s school and parents.[28]
If you believe you or your child may have a personality disorder, please reach out to a licensed mental health professional (e.g., a psychotherapist, psychologist or psychiatrist) for guidance and support.
Contributed by: Maria Karla Bermudez
Editor: Jennifer (Ghahari) Smith, Ph.D.
References
1 Adshead, G., Brodrick, P., Preston, J., & Deshpande, M. (2012). Personality disorder in adolescence. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 18(2), 109-118. doi:10.1192/apt.bp.110.008623
2 Cicchetti, D., & Crick, N. R. (2009). Precursors and diverse pathways to personality disorder in children and adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 21(3), 683-685. doi:https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409000388
3 Adshead et al. (2012)
4 Sroufe, A, Egeland, B, Carlson, E et al (2005) The Development of the Person: The Minnesota Study of Risk and Adaptation from Birth to Adulthood. Guilford Press
5 Marchetti, D., Musso, P., Verrocchio, M., Manna, G., Kopala-Sibley, D., De Berardis, D., . . . Falgares, G. (2022). Childhood maltreatment, personality vulnerability profiles, and borderline personality disorder symptoms in adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 34(3), 1163-1176. doi:10.1017/S0954579420002151
6 Xiao, Q., Yi, X., Fu, Y., Jiang, F., Zhang, Z., Huang, Q., Han, Z., & Chen, B. T. (2023). Altered brain activity and childhood trauma in Chinese adolescents with borderline personality disorder. Journal of affective disorders, 323, 435–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.12.003
7 Adshead et al. (2012)
8 Ibid.
9 Ibid.
10 Xiao et al. (2023)
11 Ibid.
12 Paris, Joel. “Personality disorders begin in adolescence.” Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry = Journal de l'Academie canadienne de psychiatrie de l'enfant et de l'adolescent vol. 22,3 (2013): 195-6. doi:10.1007/s00787-013-0389-7
13 Shiner, R (2009) The development of personality disorders: perspectives from normal development. Development and Psychopathology 4: 715–34
14 Klimstra, TA, Hale, WW, Raaijmoken, QA (2009) Maturation of personality in adolescence. Journal of Personality, Society & Psychology 96: 898–912
15 Cicchetti et al. (2009)
16 Schmeck, K. (2022, March 17). Debate: Should CAMHS professionals be diagnosing ... - wiley online library. ACAMH. https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/camh.12553
17 Personality disorders: Diagnosis. CAMH. (n.d.). https://www.camh.ca/en/professionals/treating-conditions-and-disorders/personality-disorders/personality-disorders---diagnosis#:~:text=According%20to%20DSM%2D5%2C%20features,for%20at%20least%20one%20year.
18 Laurenssen, E. M., Hutsebaut, J., Feenstra, D. J., Van Busschbach, J. J., & Luyten, P. (2013). Diagnosis of personality disorders in adolescents: a study among psychologists. Child and adolescent psychiatry and mental health, 7(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/1753-2000-7-3
19 Paris (2013)
20 van Dijk, I., Krueger, R. F., & Laceulle, O. M. (2021). DSM-5 alternative personality disorder model traits as extreme variants of five-factor model traits in adolescents. Personality disorders, 12(1), 59–69. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000409
21 Cicchetti et al. (2009)
22 Adshead et al. (2012)
23 Ibid.
24 What are personality disorders?. Psychiatry.org - What are Personality Disorders? (2022, September). https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/personality-disorders/what-are-personality-disorders#:~:text=Diagnosis%20of%20a%20personality%20disorder,their%20personalities%20are%20still%20developing.
25 Ibid.
26 Ibid.
27 Adshead et al. (2012)
28 Ibid.
