March 21, 2023

Marginalized Groups & Telework: Transforming Workplace Culture

March 21, 2023

Covid-19:Working from Home

Three years into the pandemic, the average American’s workday has significantly changed. Remote work, which emerged for many companies as the needed response to the mounting cases of COVID-19, now appears to be here to stay. Pew Research Center found that prior to the pandemic, only 17% of Americans worked from home.[1] But their follow-up study found that by the end of the pandemic’s first year, over 71% of people were engaged in remote work; from 2021 to 2023 these numbers have remained steady and a 2022 study by Phillips noted 74% of surveyed workers expect remote work to endure.[2,3] In particular, marginalized groups are embracing the teleworking boom as minorities face a greater risk of microaggressions, pay gaps, and other forms of discrimination in office environments.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DEMOGRAPHICS IN WORKPLACE NAVIGATION

Remote work has created a new consideration: Even if I enjoy my job, do I enjoy being physically there? For the average person, the answer is “No.” Only 21% of White and 3% of Black Americans are interested in returning to the office full-time, favoring a hybrid or full-time remote schedule. Further, Latinx and Asian Americans report experiencing a higher sense of belonging within their work culture when they are able to work hybridly or remotely. In a 2021 survey of 100,000 workers conducted by the Future Forum, results showed that 80% of Black, 78% of Latinx, and 77% of Asian respondents wanted a flexible working experience, either through a hybrid or remote-only model.[4]

Much of the apprehension racial minorities feel towards returning to full-time office culture comes in response to many of the unwritten professional biases that favor White American values and can leave people of color to face discrimination and exclusion.[5] According to the Stanford Social Innovation Review, regardless of industry, American work spaces tend to promote certain cultural norms: speak in standard English, communicate without an accent and with little emotion, and adhere to Western standards of dress such as straight hair and heteronormative clothing.[6] For the straight, White American male, these expectations began in child-rearing and many felt a seamless transition into the workforce. However, rooting professionalism in the dominant Western culture compounds stress for minorities, many of whom find themselves code-switching in daily interactions with peers and at the brunt of frequent verbal or behavioral slights (e.g., “You speak so well” to a person of color, or “You’re very demanding” to a female leader).[7]

Commonly referred to as microinvalidations or microaggressions, these behaviors are aimed at racial, ethnic, and gender-nonconforming minorities; while they may be short-lived and even unintentional, they represent larger implicit biases and in the long-term they impact minorities’ self-image, sense of belonging within a space, physical and mental health.[8] In a study by Hall & Fields (2015) of American Indians, individuals who were victims of microaggressions reported feeling tension, anxiousness and digestive issues such as reflux disease and GI conditions.[9] A study conducted by Torres & Driscoll (2010) found that microaggressions are also extremely disruptive to one’s work: the energy a person expends deciding if comment was a slight against them takes away from other potentially important, work-related tasks.[10]

Remote work, then, can act as a protective barrier from microinvalidations or microaggressions, allowing for marginalized communities to work without the distractions that can be detrimental to both their health and productivity.

Differences amongst demographics in managerial roles further explain why marginalized groups feel less attached to in-person work. 2021 Census data found that 67% of managers are White Americans; Hispanic, Asian, and Black Americans collectively hold less than 25% of managerial roles and only 10% of managers identify as LGBTQ+.[11] Further, minorities and female employees make up the majority of blue-collar and service jobs, both of which are often highly physical forms of employment that further limit these marginalized groups’ access to remote jobs.[12] With limited managerial roles, women, people of color, and other minorities have less representation in decisions within their companies, and as a result, they often feel less inclined to be physically present in the workspace.

DIFFERING VIEWS ON TELEWORK AMONG LEADERS

Nearly seven-in-ten employees (68 percent) said they would rather look for a new job than return to the office, according to a 2023 survey from Clarify Capital (a financial consultancy in New York City that surveyed more than 1,000 remote workers).[13] However, some CEOs and other business leaders of high profile companies have come out with arguments in favor of workers returning to the office. Disney’s Bob Iger, Starbucks’ Howard Schultz, and Goldman Sachs’ David Solomon are a few of the CEOs who spokehave come out in early 2023 requiring workers to spend a dedicated number of weekly hours in the workplace.[14] Cumulatively, their arguments in favor of on-site labor are a call to return to normalcy. Of the challenges COVID-19 has brought senior leadership, managers cite decentralized management, challenges to accountability, and the limitations that come alongside distance collaboration as major impediments to meeting their end-of-year goals.[15]

Conversely, some company leaders are coming forward as advocates for working from home. Facebook’s CEO Mark Zuckerburg explained midway through 2022 that he would spend at least half of his year working from home, attributing his ability to accomplish more on a daily basis and spend more time with his family to remote work.[16] Elsewhere, Twitter, Spotify, and Kaiser Permanente are also embracing remote work for its positive impact on work productivity and employee satisfaction. Working from home is a transformational change that can cause disagreements between employees and managers, but the managers that accommodate and adapt to workers’ needs are already seeing more success in employee retention and satisfaction.[17]

CHANGING THE WORKSPACE FOR URBAN & RURAL WORKERS THROUGH TELEWORK

Remote work even has the potential to build a sense of community and lessen social isolation in rural communities and regions facing economic decline.[18] Between 10 to 25 percent of adults in rural areas experience anxiety and depression; in addition to limited local access to mental health treatment, the financial burdens of unemployment and limited job market often exacerbate their mental health issues. With the introduction of remote work comes employment opportunities for these individuals, who are no longer limited geographically and require little more than internet access and a space within their home, local library or coffee shop to work. Thus, rural remote workers gain comparable employee benefits to those of their commuting counterparts, but often without the added stressors of a high monthly gasoline bill, wear and tear on their vehicle (or comparable high public transportation costs), an extensive work wardrobe and extended time away from family.

Further, with remote workers remaining in their original communities, their salaries in-turn stimulate the local economy, often creating new jobs and encouraging economic growth. The phenomenon of the growing workforce in rural areas became so popular during the pandemic that it was coined “Zoom towns”, with cities like Moab, Utah and Jackson, Wyoming experiencing record migration and revenue.[19]

Remote work’s positive impact is also felt in the urban employee, whose access to remote jobs also becomes an opportunity to relocate from a heavily congested area, and evade stressors such as pollution, long commutes, and constant stimuli.[20] While racial and ethnic minorities make-up about 43% of the American population, they comprise only 22% of the rural population while 48% inhabit urban regions.[21] City living comes with a variety of mental and physical challenges, exposing its inhabitants to heightened risks of elevated stress levels, respiratory issues, cancer, and depression.[22] In the long term, leaving urban populations has the potential to extend an individual’s lifespan and quality of life, and telework offers a clear route to this healthier lifestyle.

WORK CULTURE IS ADJUSTING, AND FOR THE BETTER

Workplace dynamics provide a window into larger societal issues and are also a key space to identify solutions for these disparities. Embracing remote work is just one example of the opportunity to do so. Addressing the array of experiences workers of different backgrounds face is also a step in the direction of creating organizations that value diversity, equity, and inclusion, and in doing so company leaders prove to marginalized workers that they are valued team members. As society continues to embrace remote work as the new-normal, managers and workers alike will continue to revisit its impact on productivity, eliminating disparities, and building a better work culture.

Contributed by: Kate Campbell

Editor: Jennifer (Ghahari) Smith, Ph.D.

References

1 Parker, K., Horowitz, J.M., Minkin,R. How the Corona virus outbreak Has-And Hasn’t- Changed the Way Americans Work. Pew Research Center Website. 2020. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2020/12/09/how-the-coronavirus-outbreak-has-and-hasnt-changed-the-way-americans-work/. Accessed March 14, 2023.

2 Ibid.

3 Phillips, T. The Ultimate List of Remote Work Statistics. Code Summit Website. 2022. https://codesubmit.io/blog/remote-work-statistics/. Accessed March 21, 2023.

4 United Nations. (2022). 3rd Meeting, 15th session of the Forum on Minority Issues. United Nations Website. https://media.un.org/en/asset/k1f/k1fx05gdea. Accessed March 17, 2023.

5 Gray, A. The Bias of “Professionalism Standards.” Stanford Social Innovation Review Website. 2019. https://ssir.org/articles/entry/the_bias_of_professionalism_standards. Accessed March 21, 2023.

6 Ibid.

7 Ibid.

8 Montoya, E. The Effects of Microaggressions on One’s Health. University of California, Irvine Medicine Website. 2021. https://sites.uci.edu/morningsignout/2021/03/09/the-effects-of-microaggressions-on-ones-health. Accessed March 14, 2023.

9 Hall, J.M., Fields, B.“It’s Killing Us!” Narratives of Black Adults About Microaggression Experiences and Related Health Stress. Global Qualitative Nursing Research. 2015;2. doi:10.1177/2333393615591569

10 Torres L., Driscoll M. W. (2010). Racial microaggressions and psychological functioning among highly achieving African-Americans: A mixed methods approach. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 1074–1099.

11 Hall, J.M., Fields, B.“It’s Killing Us!” Narratives of Black Adults About Microaggression Experiences and Related Health Stress. Global Qualitative Nursing Research. 2015;2. doi:10.1177/2333393615591569

12 Ibid.

13 Mayer, K. Will Employees Quit if They are Forced Back into the Office? SHRM Website. 2023.https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/hr-topics/benefits/pages/will-employees-quit-if-they-are-forced-back-into-the-office.aspx. Accessed March 18, 2023.

14 Ugincius, L. Is a return to the office inevitable? Should it be? Virginia Commonwealth University Website. 2023. https://news.vcu.edu/article/2023/01/is-a-return-to-the-office-inevitable-should-it-be

15 Ibid.

16 Stropoli, R. Are We Really More Productive Working from Home? Chicago Booth Review Website. 2021. https://www.chicagobooth.edu/review/are-we-really-more-productive-working-home. Accessed March 20, 2023.

17 Mayer (2023)

18 Reynolds, B.W. The Mental Health Benefits of Remote and Flexible Work. Mental Health America Website. 2020. https://mhanational.org/blog/mental-health-benefits-remote-and-flexible-work. Accessed March 21, 2023.

19 Potter, L. (2020, October 14). The rise of ‘Zoom Towns’ in the rural west. The University of Utah Magazine.https://magazine.utah.edu/issues/summer-2021/zoom-towns/

20 Hoffman, E. Stress and the City: Is Your City Making You Sick? Life Intelligence Website. (2020). https://www.lifeintelligence.io/blog/stress-and-the-city-is-your-city-making-you-sick. Accessed March 26, 2023.

21 United States Department of Agriculture. (2020). Racial and Ethnic Minorities made up about 22 percent of the rural population in 2018, compared to 43 percent in urban areas.

https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/chart-gallery/gallery/chart-detail/

22 Hoffman (2020)

February 16, 2023

Blake Thompson

Uncovering the Connection: Mental Illness & the Homeless Crisis

February 16, 2023

Blake Thompson

To be Homeless in America

A person or family are defined as homeless when they lack a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence.[1] In addition to the extreme poverty they face, the homeless are often in a struggle to be met with sympathy from the general population. In a 2019 poll of Americans taken by the CATO Institute, 42% responded that poverty is a result of a “lack of personal responsibility”.[2] While existing societal stigmas have caused many Americans to blame the homeless for their condition, several other factors must be considered.[3]

Monetary issues, in part, contribute to this mounting crisis. Three years into the pandemic, the steadily increasing costs of living and limited access to affordable housing are compounding issues for the average American.[4] But as the conversation surrounding homelessness steers towards pointing the blame at the economy, it is important not to lose sight of a factor that makes someone more vulnerable to losing their home: mental illness.[5] Public health research has long come to the resounding conclusion that homelessness and mental illness have a complex, two-way relationship that compounds challenges for those who are afflicted.[6] With the added pressure of another recession looming, mental health and homelessness have an exacerbating relationship: mental illness greatens the chances of becoming homeless, and trying to survive while homelessness takes a toll on a person’s mental health.

The Mental Illness to Homeless Pipeline

In America, approximately 4% of the general population of adults have a severe mental illness (e.g., schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or major depressive disorder).[7] In contrast, it is estimated that 45% of the homeless population experience a form of mental illness,[8] with 25% of this population suffering from severe mental illness.[9] Unfortunately, as researchers lack sufficient access to the homeless population, the actual number of homeless people living with any form of a mental illness is potentially much higher than these annual estimates.[10]

Since the last Census in 2020, rising housing costs combined with continuous inflation for basic goods and services have left an estimated 2,000 Americans newly homeless,[11] with thousands more fearing they will soon lose their homes. In June 2022, the inflation rate hit a 41-year high of 9.1%,[12] leaving the average family strained to pay for gas, energy bills, and groceries.[13]

For those diagnosed with a mental health condition, even more challenges arise against their efforts to keep a home. Research conducted by Luciano and Merea (2010) divided over 77,000 participants into groups of “none, mild, moderate, and serious mental illness” and found that employment rates decreased with increasing mental illness.[14] Further, within the group diagnosed with “serious mental illness”, nearly 40% made an annual salary of less than $10,000”,[15] which is roughly half of the annual minimum needed for a two-bedroom apartment, according to the National Low Income Housing Coalition.[16]

While anti-discrimination laws offer protection for workers who disclose their mental illness diagnosis, many of the symptoms behind mental disorders complicate a person’s ability to maintain continuous employment. The average work week is 40 hours over the span of five days, and requires employees to show up on time, remain productive, and limit their sick leave to the numbers prescribed by their organization. But those with a mental illness are more likely to call-in sick, take medical leave, and under-perform at work.[17] As a result, individuals with a mental illness are two to three times more likely to be unemployed, with their employment rate at 15 percentage points lower than for those without mental health problems.[18]

Struggles with employment are especially relevant for people with schizophrenia, who fare poorer than any other disadvantaged group in the labor market. Individuals with this condition experience a 70-90% unemployment rate, which is roughly 30 times higher than the general population.[19] Unemployed more than any other group with disabilities, those with schizophrenia are estimated to make up 40% of the homeless population.[20]

Lacking the ability to maintain employment, Americans with mental illnesses have a higher likelihood of unpaid medical bills and missed rent/mortgage payments.[21] Eventually, cumulating costs increase their potential of losing a place to live.

Navigating Homelessness with a Mental Illness

It is even more difficult to overcome mental health challenges once a person becomes homeless. Lacking necessities (e.g., food, water, and hygiene) often leads to the development of worry, fear, and sleeplessness, which can then compound into mental illnesses (e.g., anxiety, depression, and substance abuse disorder) in those who may not have even had them prior to losing their home. For those that already had a diagnosis prior to losing their home, these conditions only further exacerbate their illness, and resources like medication, therapy, and hospitalization are often difficult to obtain without medical insurance. Facing relentless pressure to have basic necessities as well as gain treatment, many homeless people can barely cover the short-term costs of food, medicine, and soap,[22] and are unable to build any savings that could be used to contribute to paying rent.

Housing Discrimination

Of course, once a person becomes homeless, the natural question is: “How do they get back into a home?” Unfortunately, the compounding factors of poor mental health and lack of a steady income introduce a large barrier to owning or renting a home. When a person applies to rent a property, they are often expected to submit proof of at least six months of employment, consent to having their credit score checked, and provide information for a background check. Not only does a homeless person often have no proof of current employment, but their chances of having a low credit score from prior financial difficulties are more likely than not.[23] If they surpass these points in a renter’s application, many renters are then expected to provide a downpayment or 1.5 months’ rent for their first month. Even if an individual is eligible to rent or own a house from a financial standpoint, they may be unable to pass a background check. This predicament lands many in motels, which are non-permanent shelter, and often amount to more than the median $1,715 dollars spent monthly on rent.[24] Unable to afford motels for an extended period of time, many individuals become vulnerable to returning to living on the streets.

Adding to their difficulties, the concepts of homelessness, incarceration, and poor mental health are often inseparable. Severe mental illness is more prevalent among the homeless population and is associated with increased risk of involvement with the criminal justice system.[25] In fact, over 25% of people experiencing homelessness report being arrested for activities that are a direct result of their homelessness, such as loitering and sleeping or lying down in public spaces.[26] As aforementioned, these arrests can add to the vicious cycle facing homeless populations, as a criminal record often impacts future employment and housing opportunities.

Not all is lost

Despite these alarming numbers, specific demographics have shown improvements in the homeless crisis in recent years, with even the most at-risk subpopulations experiencing a steady decrease in homelessness:

While 20% of veterans are diagnosed with PTSD in any given year, their rate of homelessness has steadily decreased 55% since 2010.[27]
Black Americans comprise only 13% of the U.S. population, yet make up 40% of the homeless population. However, between 2020 and 2021, the number of Black or African American people staying in shelters decreased by 12%.[28]
While the number of homeless families increased between the 2020 Census and 2022, the overall number of homeless independent adults dropped.[29]
The number of people under 25 experiencing homelessness has decreased by 12%, with youth homelessness down 6%.[30]

Further, the Federal Government continues to emplace financial interventions to support Americans with mental illness. According to a Continuing Disability Review from the Social Security Administration in 2014, mental illness is now the primary diagnosis for one-in-three persons under the age of 50 who receive disabled worker benefits.[31] As the number of disability beneficiaries with mental illness grows steadily, policy makers have an increased interest in monitoring employment rates by mental health status,[32] a sign of progress that will directly aid the homeless population.

The implications? Why does it matter

Much of the advocacy for homeless rights supports increasing the visibility of this crisis and placing additional responsibility on the general population. Since 1991, when the United Nations declared housing to be a fundamental right,[33] American society has made strides in its perception and support of the homeless population. However, mental illness is a significant hurdle to overcome, and this is often only one of a homeless person’s marginalized identities. Too often, women, people of color, and members of the LGBTQ+ community are overrepresented in the annual numbers of people without permanent housing.[34] The multiple layers of discrimination these marginalized communities combat on a daily basis also cause them to face higher barriers to reintegrate into society.

Ways We Can Help

While government intervention is key to continuing to improve the homelessness crisis, there are several ways people can continue to help:

Practice Kindness & Respect: While much of the responsibility to fix discrimination against the homeless falls on policy changes, it is still within every individuals’ control to manage the ways they personally engage with homeless people. Even in small interactions with a homeless person, it is damaging to treat them as though they are invisible, or try to judge them for their state. Instead, simply saying “good morning” and treating them as though they are a normal human being have the potential to improve someone’s day. No one wants to be judged for their worst day, and the homeless are often in a unique position where they are experiencing hardship on a daily basis.
Advocate Against Homelessness Discrimination: Employers are not only responsible for knowing anti-discrimination laws, but further, they must practice them in a manner that supports employees with mental illnesses and prior criminal records. It is illegal in every state to deny someone employment because of a prior felony, but employers often find work-arounds to make employment more difficult for this demographic. The “Ban the Box” campaign, which has already been implemented in 150 cities across 30 states, removed questions about criminal history from Federal job applications and pushed background checks to later in the hiring process.[35] With this change, an individual has the opportunity to be judged for other qualifications instead of being discounted over one aspect of their past. This initiative and others like it are key to combating the incarceration-to-homeless pipeline.
Decriminalize Homelessness: Walking around major cities, it is often easy to find excessively slanted benches, spiked window sills, and raised grate covers, all of which all intended to keep the homeless from sheltering in public spaces. Other communities have taken measures even further, adopting laws that criminalize people for behaviors that are side effects of their survival. According to the National Homelessness Law Center, 48 states have at least one law restricting behaviors of people experiencing homelessness (e.g., loitering, trespassing, or sleeping in public spaces) and these types of laws continue to gain traction across the country.[36] Members of a community can counteract these laws through protest, by voting, and by encouraging local business owners to enact more homeless-friendly provisions.

For more programs and resources on how to help the homeless, click here.

Contributed by: Kate Campbell

Editor: Jennifer (Ghahari) Smith, Ph.D.

REFERENCES

1 General definition of a homeless individual, 42 U.S.C § 11302 (1994).

https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/11302#:~:text=(1),(2).

2 Ekins, E. What Americans Think About Poverty, Wealth, and Work. CATO Institute Website. https://www.cato.org/publications/survey-reports/what-americans-think-about-poverty-wealth-work. Updated 2019. Accessed February 15, 2023.

3 Ibid.

4 Homelessness: The Problem. The National Low Income Housing Coalition Website. https://nlihc.org/explore-issues/why-we-care/problem. Updated 2023. Accessed February 12, 2023.

5 Mental Health by the Numbers. National Alliance on Mental Illness Website. https://nami.org/mhstats?gclid=CjwKCAiA_6yfBhBNEiwAkmXy50NgnpQVgRjIdYOunA1ZbReAHYOORBq_P_wvqkK7uH9AXWh-Y2rOHRoCcmwQAvD_BwE. Updated June 2022. Accessed February 12, 2023.

6 About Mental Health. Center for Disease Control and Prevention Website.

https://www.cdc.gov/mentalhealth/learn/index.htm. Updated June 2021. Accessed February 11, 2023.

7 Mental Health by the Numbers. National Alliance on Mental Illness Website. https://nami.org/mhstats?gclid=CjwKCAiA_6yfBhBNEiwAkmXy50NgnpQVgRjIdYOunA1ZbReAHYOORBq_P_wvqkK7uH9AXWh-Y2rOHRoCcmwQAvD_BwE. Updated June 2022. Accessed February 12, 2023.

8 Ibid.

9 Ibid.

10 Ibid.

11 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. (2022). Annual Homelessness Assessment Report. https://www.hud.gov/press/press_releases_media_advisories/HUD_No_22_253. HUD Public Affairs.

12 Carter, C. With inflation at a 41-year high, USF economics professor explains what to expect. WUSF Public Media Website.

https://wusfnews.wusf.usf.edu/economy-business/2022-07-14/inflation-41-year-high-usf-economics-professor-explains-what-to-expect. Updated July 2022. Accessed February 12, 2023.

13 Ibid.

14 Luciano A, Meara E. Employment Status of People with Mental Illness: National Survey Data from 2009 and 2010. American Psychological Association Publishing, 2014;65(10):1-9. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201300335.

15 Lloyd, A. Average Rent is 32% of the typical Americans’ pay; that’s more than financial experts recommend budgeting for housing. Business Insider Website.

https://www.businessinsider.in/policy/economy/news/average-rent-is-32-of-the-typical-americans-pay-thats-more-than-financial-experts-recommend-budgeting-for-housing/articleshow/90428300.cms. Updated March 2022. Accessed February 14, 2023.

16 National Low Income Housing Coalition (2022). Out of Reach: The High Cost of Living. https://nlihc.org/oor

17 How your Mental Health may be Impacting your Career. PBS Website.

https://www.pbs.org/newshour/health/how-mental-health-impacts-us-workers. Updated 2013. Accessed February 13, 2023.

18 Ibid.

19 Greenstein, L. Can Stigma Prevent Employment? National Alliance on Mental Illness Website.

https://www.nami.org/Blogs/NAMI-Blog/October-2017/Can-Stigma-Prevent-Employment. Updated 2017. Accessed February 10, 2023.

20 Ayano G, Tesfaw G, Shumet S. The prevalence of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders among homeless people: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry. 2019;19:370. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6880407/.

21 Colato EG, Enard KE, Orban BL, Wiltshire JC. Problems paying medical bills and mental health symptoms post-Affordable Care Act. 2022;7(2):274-286. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7327393/

22 Fleury MJ, Grenier G, Sabetti J, et al. Met and unmet needs of homeless individuals at different stages of housing reintegration: A mixed-method investigation. PLOS One. 2021;16(1). https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0245088. Accessed February 15, 2023.

23 Bharat N, Cicatello J, Guo E, Vallabhaneni V. University of Michigan School of Public Health Website. https://sph.umich.edu/pursuit/2020posts/homelessness-and-job-security-challenges-and-interventions.html. Updated 2019. Accessed February 14, 2023.

24 Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University. (2022). America’s Rental Housing. https://www.jchs.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/reports/files/Harvard_JCHS_Americas_Rental_Housing_2022.pdf.

25 Greenberg GA, Rosenheck RA. Jail Incarceration, Homelessness, and Mental Health: A National Study. Psychiatric Services. 2008;59(2):135-143.

https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.2008.59.2.170

26 Gillison, D. Veteran Mental Health: Not All Wounds are Visible. National Alliance on Mental Illness Website. https://www.nami.org/Blogs/From-the-CEO/November-2021/Veteran-Mental-Health-Not-All-Wounds-are-Visible. Updated November 2021. Accessed February 10, 2023.

27 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (2022)

28 Ibid.

29 Ibid.

30 Ibid.

31 Social Security Administration. (2013). Annual Statistical Report on the Social Security Disability Insurance Program. https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/statcomps/di_asr/2013/di_asr13.pdf.

32 Luciano & Meara (2014)

33 United Nations Higher Commissioner for Human Rights. (2009). The Right to Adequate Housing. (UN Publication FS 21-1). https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Publications/FS21_rev_1_Housing_en.pdf.

34 Oliva, A. Ending Homelessness: Addressing Local Challenges in Housing the Most Vulnerable. Center on Budget and Policy Priorities Website.

https://www.cbpp.org/research/housing/ending-homelessness-addressing-local-challenges-in-housing-the-most-vulnerable. Updated 2022. Accessed February 12, 2023.

35 Avery B, Lu H. Ban the Box: U.S. Cities, Counties, and States Adopt Fair Hiring Policies. National Employment Law Project Website. https://www.nelp.org/publication/ban-the-box-fair-chance-hiring-state-and-local-guide/. Updated 2021. Accessed February 12, 2023.

Citations: