Climate Anxiety: The Psychological Impacts of Climate Change

Are We Doomed?

Climate change refers to long-term changes in the Earth’s weather pattern and temperatures due to increased fossil fuel emissions. Studies have shown that humans have become the leading cause of climate change as the Earth’s surface is now around 1.1°C (2°F) warmer than in the 1800s. While that may not sound like a significant rise, the United Nations notes that it can lead to major environmental changes with catastrophic consequences including water scarcity, flooding, declining biodiversity, severe fires and storms.[1] Such dire warnings and predictions have led to psychological distress about what the future may hold. 

Climate Anxiety

Ecological anxiety (i.e., eco-anxiety) is the psychological discomfort arising from the threat of an ecological disaster, which itself is seen as uncertain or difficult to control. Climate change anxiety falls under the category of eco-anxiety and is explained as “the distress caused by climate change as people become anxious about their future.”[2] Nadarajah et al. (2022) note that climate change has become a source of concern for many international organizations including the United Nations and the World Health Organization (WHO) as they now consider this ecological threat to be the greatest danger to mental health within the next century.[3]  

The consequences humanity is already facing have been shown to have effects on their mental health and well-being. For example, excessive heat has been associated with increased aggression, suicide, and hospitalizations for mental illness. Air pollution caused by fine air particulate matter can lead to cognitive impairment and behavioral problems in vulnerable populations. Extreme heat and severe weather events also pose a greater risk to children’s development due to their thermoregulation not being fully developed and their greater dependency on adults and social support.[4] 

Climate anxiety can be caused due to either direct causes (e.g., trauma resulting from extreme weather events) or indirect causes (e.g., trauma from a perceived threat to the future). These causes can have different impacts on an individual’s symptoms of climate anxiety.  Cognitive-emotional impairments include difficulty sleeping, crying, nightmares, and rumination. Functional-impairments of climate anxiety include the inability to work or socialize with others.[5] Other mental health disorders have been associated with climate-related trauma such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety, suicidal thoughts, and survivor guilt. Some individuals can even develop mood disorders or maladaptive eating due to the great uncertainty the future can hold and the intense fear that comes from questioning the future of their existence.[6]

Cross-National Investigation of Climate Anxiety 

While climate anxiety is just beginning to be studied, most research conducted has been done in Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich Democracies (WEIRD). However, more emphasis is being drawn on the need for worldwide research on how global warming is affecting global populations psychologically. A 2021 study conducted in 50 different countries by Peoples’ Climate Vote found 64% of 1.2 million respondents believed climate change to be a global threat. Additionally, a survey conducted by Yale University in 2021 noted that the majority of people from over 30 countries felt climate change would affect them by either a “moderate amount” or a “great deal”.[7] Further, a 2021 poll conducted by Hickman et al., in the Global South found that Brazil (86%), India (80%), Nigeria (70%), and the Philippines (92%) all indicated high levels of fear for the future. Adversely, Russia reported some of the lowest concerns at 9.6%,[8] but this may be attributed to that population’s lack of climate-related information due to extreme internet/information censorship enacted by their government.[9] 

Due to the great fear of climate change, many studies, such as Ogunbode et al., (2022), have shown a direct relationship between climate anxiety and pro-environmental behaviors, such as supporting climate policies and climate activism. This is especially prominent among European, democratic, affluent countries - as their citizens are likely to have fewer political or financial barriers to expressing their concerns and have more opportunities to learn about global warming and its consequences. Additionally, pro-environmental behaviors are linked with individualist countries, as people feel a greater need to act on their personal beliefs.[10]

Generation Z &the Fear for Their Future 

While most climate anxiety research involves WEIRD countries, a global trend is beginning to emerge in cross-national data: Generation Z (i.e., those born 1997-2012) is more concerned with climate change than the generations before them. The Lancet Planetary Health (2021) conducted a global survey in 10 different countries asking young people (16 to 25 y/o) about their climate anxiety and their reaction to governmental response.[11] From this study, 83% of young people reported they were at least “moderately worried” and 59% reported they were “very worried” about global warming and its threat to the future. Additionally, 45% expressed that their worry affected their daily functioning such as concentrating, working, socializing, eating, and spending time in nature. The study also reveals respondents' fear for their future, with 75% indicating that the “future is frightening” and 56% feeling “humanity is doomed”.[12]

These pessimistic views are understandable, as Generation Z and those after will bear the harsh burden of climate change. A 2021 review by Hickman et al., found Gen-Z and future generations will face extremely high disease risk due to environmental changes. Hickman’s study also examined young people’s view on government response to climate change, and found respondents felt “frustrated by unequal power, betrayed and angry, and disillusioned with authority, drawing battle lines”.[13] The ecological crisis has gotten to the heart of younger populations, with one 16-year-old noting, “I think it’s different for young people. For us the destruction of the planet is personal.”[14] 

Young people have even turned to legal action in the hope of pushing the government to take action on the climate crisis. The case of Juliana v. United States was filed in 2015 after 21 children and young adults (8-19 y/o) asserted the government’s inaction on climate change was violating their right to life, liberty, and property. Additionally, the youth plaintiffs argued it was the government’s duty to protect public groups, which they failed to do as they permitted and encouraged fossil fuel usage.[15] However, in 2020 the case was thrown out stating the issue needed to be raised with the executive and legislative branches of government versus the courts.[16]

Many factors play into why this generation feels more strongly about climate change - the most prominent is media exposure. Younger generations are becoming more exposed to news, images, and reports of environmental disasters due to constant access to the internet and social media from their smartphones, and thus frequently witness the consequences of global warming.[17] Moreover, repeated exposure to negative news on climate change increases their awareness of the threat and increases their anticipation of the consequences. This then leads to additional information-seeking as a reactive behavior to the uncertainty of the future.[18] Finally, the social norms around climate change within younger generations are more pro-environmental, thus giving them a sense of security in their feelings. Ogunbode et al., (2022) add that when people around an individual react to the consequences in a similar way, they feel justified in their behaviors.[19]

Mitigating Climate Anxiety 

While the threat from climate change is a grave concern for many people, there are steps individuals can take to lower their anxiety as well as combat the crisis. Individuals can also decrease their climate anxiety as well as make a difference by supporting pro-environmental behaviors (e.g., saving energy at home, avoiding food waste, and using public transportation) and promoting policies and organizations that push to help the environment.[20] Taking pauses or meditating can also calm certain anxieties people may have about the climate crisis. Mindfulness can allow people to focus on the present moment and learn compassion for themselves and nature. Further, individuals can use contemplative time to reflect on the complexity of climate change, understand change cannot come overnight and can allow them to reflect on the power they hold to enact change and help make a difference. Psychotherapy, particularly cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), can be useful for people to employ and work through their concerns with a mental health professional.[21] Particular components of CBT that can be useful in combating climate anxiety include:[22] 

• Using problem-solving skills to cope with difficult situations

• Learning to develop a greater sense of confidence in one’s own abilities

• Facing one’s fears instead of avoiding them

• Learning to calm one’s mind and relax one’s body

Additionally, individuals can seek clinicians who practice ecotherapy, or nature therapy, as these practitioners may have a greater awareness of current climate concerns. This is especially useful as ecotherapy focuses on reconnecting with nature and exploring how people’s lives are part of a greater system. If conducted in a group format, ecotherapy allows people to explore their personal relationships with nature as well as share with others their emotions and worries,[23] which can further validate their feelings and help someone feel less alone.

Future Steps 

Although climate anxiety is a relatively new concept, more emphasis needs to be placed on investigating the impacts of climate anxiety on non-WEIRD populations. Additionally, focusing on how different international factors such as education, religion, and region affects people’s feelings towards global warming will allow a better way to educate and create more effective strategies to help slow climate change.[24,25] Moving forward, it is imperative for mental health professionals to continue to develop strategies that allow clients to feel their concerns are being heard, as this phenomenon will only worsen as the consequences of climate change continue to rise. 

If you or someone you know is struggling with depression, hopelessness and/or anxiety regarding climate concerns, please reach out to a licensed mental health professional (e.g., a psychotherapist, psychologist or psychiatrist) for guidance and support.

Contributed by: Ryann Thomson

Editor: Jennifer (Ghahari) Smith, Ph.D.

references

1 United Nations. (n.d.). What is climate change? | United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/what-is-climate-change

2 Nadarajah, K., David, J., Brun, L., Bordel, S., Moyon, L., Foll, D. L., Delouvée, S., & Somat, A. (2022b). “We Are Running Out of Time”: Temporal Orientation and Information Seeking as Explanatory Factors of Climate Anxiety among Young People. Psych, 4(3), 560–573. https://doi.org/10.3390/psych4030043

3 Nadarajah et al., (2022)

4 Clayton, S. (2020). Climate anxiety: Psychological responses to climate change. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102263

5  Nadarajah et al., (2022)

6 Reyes, M. E. S., Carmen, B. P. B., Luminarias, M. E. P., Mangulabnan, S. a. N. B., & Ogunbode, C. A. (2021). An investigation into the relationship between climate change anxiety and mental health among Gen Z Filipinos. Current Psychology, 42(9), 7448–7456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02099-3 

7 Tam, K., Chan, H., & Clayton, S. (2023b). Climate change anxiety in China, India, Japan, and the United States. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 87, 101991. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2023.101991 

8 Hickman, C., Marks, E., Pihkala, P. P., Clayton, S., Lewandowski, R. J., Mayall, E. E., Wray, B., Mellor, C., & Van Susteren, L. (2021). Climate anxiety in children and young people and their beliefs about government responses to climate change: a global survey. The Lancet Planetary Health, 5(12), e863–e873. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2542-5196(21)00278-3

9 Litvinova, D. (2023, May 24). The cyber gulag: How Russia tracks, censors and controls its citizens | AP News. AP News. https://apnews.com/article/russia-crackdown-surveillance-censorship-war-ukraine-internet-dab3663774feb666d6d0025bcd082fba 

10 Ogunbode, C. A., Doran, R., Hanss, D., Ojala, M., Salmela-Aro, K., Van Den Broek, K. L., Bhullar, N., De Aquino, S. D., Marot, T. A., Schermer, J. A., Wlodarczyk, A., Lu, S. L., Jiang, F., Maran, D. A., Yadav, R., Ardi, R., Chegeni, R., Ghanbarian, E., Z and, S., . . . Karasu, M. (2022). Climate anxiety, wellbeing and pro-environmental action: correlates of negative emotional responses to climate change in 32 countries. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 84, 101887. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2022.101887

11 Hickman et al., (2021) 

12 Ibid. 

13 Ibid. 

14 Ibid. 

15 Salas, R. N., Jacobs, W., & Perera, F. P. (2019). The Case of Juliana v. U.S. — Children and the Health Burdens of Climate Change. The New England Journal of Medicine, 380(22), 2085–2087. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmp1905504

16 Youth climate lawsuit against federal government headed for trial. (2023). Yale E360. https://e360.yale.edu/digest/juliana-youth-climate-lawsuit-trial 

17 Nadarajah et al., (2022)

18 Ibid. 

19 Ogunbode et al., (2022) 

20 Ibid. 

21 Reyes et al., (2021) 

22 What is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy? (2017, July 31). https://www.apa.org. https://www.apa.org/ptsd-guideline/patients-and-families/cognitive-behavioral  

23 GoodTherapy Editor Team. (2018, August 15). Ecotherapy/nature therapy. https://www.goodtherapy.org/learn-about-therapy/types/econature-therapy 

24 Tam et al., (2023)

25 Reyes et al., (2021) 

The Need for Ecotherapy in Our Overstimulated, Over-Industrialized World

The Science Behind Ecotherapy

From the smells of essential oils emitted by trees to the sounds of running water, there are significant findings that support the calming, healing, and restorative aspects of spending time in nature. In The Nature Fix (2017), Florence Williams investigates and explains a multitude of ways nature benefits humans both psychologically and physiologically. Since our world has begun rapidly urbanizing, people have lost touch with the surroundings in which we adapted, evolved, and thrived. According to Williams, we don’t experience nature often enough anymore to realize how restored it can make us feel, “nor are we aware that studies also show [natural environments] make us healthier, more creative, more empathetic and more apt to engage with the world and with each other.” To support her claim that despite our rapid industrialization, nature remains an innate value of humans, Williams notes that humans “pay considerably more for residences or hotel rooms right on the beach, or the pastoral ninth hole, or a quiet, tree-lined street.” Additionally, experts find that “these habitat preferences are remarkably consistent across cultures and eras.” As a result of our increased separation from the natural environment we still instinctively crave, levels of stress, depression, diabetes, migraines, hypertension, and crime are elevated while attention, memory, eyesight, and social skills worsen.[1] 

Much of what scientists have begun to confirm about the health benefits of nature have long been known and treasured by Indigenous peoples. When discussing the role nature plays in mental well-being, it would be remiss to ignore the fact that the intertwinement of humans and the natural world is Indigenous wisdom that has been around for centuries. Charles and Cajete (2020) write, “Evidence is growing within non-Indigenous communities of the scientific validity of these ancient as well as contemporary practices, and their adaptive value today and for the future.” Instead of the scientific method, traditional and Indigenous wisdom is “based on natural law, the workings of the land and relationships… the essence of Native science is predicated on seeking and supporting life.”[2] Because most Indigenous languages do not have a word for “science,” Indigenous philosopher Kyle Whyte uses the term traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) instead. Whyte defines TEK as “the knowledge, practice, and belief concerning the relationships of living beings to one another and to the physical environment, which is held by peoples in relatively nontechnical societies.” TEK and science differ in their rationality, but are complementary disciplines; TEK is beneficial to scientific advancement. One reason that’s been noted as to why Indigenous communities do not conduct research is because, “Societies without computing capacities built into their TEK systems cannot value quantitative research in the same way that it is valued in natural science disciplines.”[3] Thus, the rise of ecotherapy and nature-based interventions may be new to the Western world, but is in no way a modern discovery nor novel idea to be claimed. 

To understand why nature offers such beneficial rewards to the human body, one can look to the biophilia hypothesis for a fundamental explanation. Williams (2017) explains this hypothesis succinctly: “We feel most ‘at home’ in nature because we evolved there.” Given that humans have a predisposed inclination toward nature, we can build upon the biophilia hypothesis with two pronounced theories that support this claim: the Stress Recovery Theory (SRT) and Attention Restoration Theory (ART). These two theories have surfaced through research on restorative environments, and speak to different aspects of the recovery powers of nature. Rita Berto, an environmental psychologist, finds that “although in both theories natural environments are more restorative than urban or artificial environments, they differ in what drives individuals toward a restorative place: In SRT it is physiological stress, whereas in ART it is mental fatigue.”[4] In Figure 1, the component of nature is visualized as an important step on the way toward restoration, and even more crucial for vitalization. ART and SRT are two theories that, in conjunction with the biophilia hypothesis, provide scientific rationale for the efficacy and legitimacy of eco-psychological interventions.

Figure 1

Process of personal and environmental aspects of fatigue and recovery

Note: This sketch was produced by Rydstedt & Johnsen in 2019 [5]

One reason nature-based therapies and environmental calls-to-action are gaining popularity is due to the rise in ADHD diagnoses in children.[6] Williams finds that, “Of the 6.4 million diagnosed kids in America, half are taking prescription stimulants, an increase of 28 percent since 2007” (Williams p. 233). The Attention Restoration Theory (ART) presents reasoning for why nature is advantageous specifically for focus and concentration. Originally proposed by Stephen and Rachel Kaplan, ART works through four different cognitives states: 1) a clearing of the head, 2) mental fatigue recovery, 3) soft fascination, and 4) reflection.[7] Therefore, as someone takes a walk, their attention becomes increasingly restored because of the lack of cognitive demand, as well as the added scenery and stimuli that evoke reflection and interest in the person. One notable study conducted by Frances Kuo and Andrea Taylor (2004) found that kids showed fewer ADHD symptoms after spending time in nature. The symptoms evaluated in their study included: remaining focused on unappealing tasks, finishing tasks, listening to and adhering to directions, and restraining oneself from distractions. Kuo and Taylor suggest that “green time” can be used to supplement or even replace ADHD medication, especially in cases where medication is undesirable or ineffective.[8] 

Richard Louv coined the term “nature-deficit disorder” in his 2005 book, Last Child in the Woods. In the book’s introduction, Louv writes that rapidly advancing technologies “are blurring the lines between humans, other animals, and machines. The postmodern notion that reality is only a construct-- that we are what we program-- suggests limitless human possibilities.” In trying to build technologies that will allow us to manipulate and control every aspect of our reality, Louv argues that “the young spend less and less of their lives in natural surroundings [and] their senses narrow, physiologically and psychologically, and this reduces the richness of human experience.”[9] Ecotherapy is one way to reconnect with the natural roots from which humankind came. A burgeoning kind of therapy, ecotherapy has promising research and comparable effectiveness to other types of therapy and medication. Buzzell and Chalquist (2005) explain ecotherapy as an “umbrella term for nature-based methods of physical and psychological healing,” which “represents a new form of psychotherapy that acknowledges the vital role of nature and addresses the human-nature relationship.” In their book Ecotherapy: Healing with Nature in Mind, Buzzell and Chalquist put to rest some of the diminutive myths that surround ecotherapy (e.g., it’s a fad, or it just involves thinking good thoughts), and emphasize the dire need for increased nature integration in today’s world: 

The problem of our day is an inner deadening, an increasingly deployed defense against the stresses of living in an overbuilt industrialized civilization saturated by intrusive advertising and media, unregulated toxic chemicals, unhealthy food, parasitic business practices, time-stressed living, and (in the United States) relentlessly mindless political propaganda.[10]

Nature-based therapies offer a multitude of empirically-supported benefits such as decreased heart rates and increased focus. In her book, Williams (2017) provides numerous evidence-based examples of nature improving the human mind and body. One study she describes, conducted by immunologist Qing Li, found that middle-aged Tokyo businessmen who spent three days in the woods experienced a 40 percent increase in natural killer cells. Natural killer cells are part of the innate immune system that limit the spread of tumors and microbial infections, thereby preventing tissue damage.[11] A month after the expedition ended, their natural killer count was “still 15 percent higher than when they started.” This study demonstrates that the positive health effects of nature are not fleeting, but can remain in the body benefiting the system long after the initial encounter.

In addition to the surplus of evidence for its health advantages, nature can also be a safe and non-judgmental place to breathe, reflect, connect, and process difficult feelings like grief. Chris Russo, a psychotherapist and ecotherapist at Seattle Anxiety Specialists, notes that everyone’s experience and relationship to nature is different. Therefore, taking time to investigate that unique relationship is a critical first step to embarking on an eco-therapeutic path. Russo adds that, “Nature can be stressful for people, so recognizing that relationship is important. Different natural environments have different effects on people.” Additionally, Russo observes that in our consumerist culture, people sometimes enter therapy looking for a “quick fix.” While research suggests that two hours a week in nature is linked to significant health benefits, Russo believes that connection with nature is more than prescriptive. He believes that “places and spaces can be coping skills in, and of, themselves,” so using therapy to explore and understand one’s current relationship with nature could help one discover a new relationship with their environment that offers a continual source of comfort or relief. 

One way Russo integrates nature with therapy is by bringing objects like pinecones and rocks to a therapy session for a client to interact with and use for reflection. He also has gone on walks in parks and observed the sounds of rushing waterfalls with clients. When asked if he felt a difference in his effectiveness as a practitioner when in nature, Russo replied, “so much of nature-based therapy is in-the-now. When we’re walking and moving along together I can be more creative than I might be in an indoor space because there is constantly new stimuli to interact with and explore.” 

Ecotherapy is not just for nature enthusiasts and wildlife lovers. Ecotherapy is for anyone who is interested in exploring their existing feelings and attitudes toward nature or through nature. It is an opportunity to investigate how society’s split from natural environments has personally impacted oneself and one’s community, and consequently affected mental well-being. It can also be a vehicle to spark conversation and memories in therapy, while at the same time bringing some of those stress-reducing and attention-boosting benefits. Time and again, empirical findings as well as TEK point to the psychological as well as physiological utility of nature. We are only just beginning to understand how the integration of nature and talk therapy can be meshed together for more profound healing, restoration, and connection than either could afford individually. 

For more information, click here to access an interview with Journalist Florence Williams on nature therapy.

Contributed by: Maya Hsu

Editor: Jennifer (Ghahari) Smith, Ph.D.

References

1 Williams, F. (2018). The nature fix: Why nature makes us happier, healthier, and more creative. W.W. Norton & Company. 

2 Charles, C., & Cajete, G. A. (2020). Wisdom traditions, science and care for the earth: Pathways to responsible action. Ecopsychology, 12(2), 65–70. https://doi.org/10.1089/eco.2020.0020 

3 Whyte, K. P. (2013). On the role of traditional ecological knowledge as a collaborative concept: A philosophical study. Ecological Processes, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/2192-1709-2-7  

4 Berto, R. (2014, October 21). The role of nature in coping with psycho-physiological stress: A literature review on restorativeness. Behavioral sciences (Basel, Switzerland). Retrieved November 4, 2021, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4287696/. 

5 Rydstedt, L. W., & Johnsen, S. (2019). Towards an integration of recovery and restoration theories. Heliyon, 5(7), e02023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02023 

6 Summers, J. K., & Vivian, D. N. (2018) Ecotherapy – A Forgotten Ecosystem Service: A Review. Front. Psychol. 9:1389. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01389

7 Ackerman, C. E. (2021, August 1). What is Kaplan's Attention Restoration Theory (art)? benefits + criticisms. PositivePsychology.com. Retrieved November 4, 2021, from https://positivepsychology.com/attention-restoration-theory/. 

8 Kuo, F. E., & Taylor, A. F. (2004, September). A potential natural treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Evidence from a national study. American journal of public health. Retrieved November 4, 2021, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1448497/. 

9 Louv, R. (2005). Last child in the woods: Why children need nature, how it was taken from them, and how to get it back. Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill. 

10 Buzzell, L., & Chalquist, C. (2009). Ecotherapy: Healing with nature in mind. Sierra Club Books. 

11 Vivier, E., Tomasello, E., Baratin, M. et al. Functions of natural killer cells. Nat Immunol 9, 503–510 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1038/ni1582