Psychiatrist: Alfred Adler
Overview
Alfred Adler, M.D., Ph.D., was an Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist who made significant contributions to the field of psychology throughout the 20th century. Born on February 7, 1870, in Vienna, Austria, Adler initially trained as a physician but later shifted his focus to human behavior. With a career spanning three decades, Adler’s key contributions include the development of individual psychology, his humanistic approach to human behavior, and inventing the inferiority and superiority complexes.[1] Although Adler was a founding member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society alongside fellow psychologist Sigmund Freud, he eventually distanced himself from his contemporary, instead studying psychology under a holistic lens that he would later coin as “Individual Psychology”.[2] In contrast to the dominant theory of behaviorism, which was deterministic at its core and centered human behavior around genetics and the environment, Adler’s theory of individual psychology saw social interaction as a central part of human development.[3]
Throughout his career, Adler went on several lecture tours throughout Europe and the United States, and wrote extensively on topics related to psychology, education, and society. His work has had a lasting influence on various fields, including psychotherapy, counseling, and the study of personality. In 1937, during a lecture tour in Scotland, Adler suffered a fatal heart attack on May 28, at the age of 67.[4]
Background
Born just outside of Vienna, Austria in 1870, Adler was the third son of a Jewish grain merchant and his wife.[5] As a child, Adler did not walk until he was four years old because he suffered from shingles, and at age five he nearly died from pneumonia.[6] Despite spending much of his childhood watching his older brother play without being able to join him because of his frequent illnesses (and other misfortunes including being hit by a car on two different occasions), Adler had a happy childhood surrounded by his tight knit family.[7,8] The combination of his bout with pneumonia and losing a younger brother inspired Adler to become a physician, a career path that initially seemed unlikely to come to fruition because Adler was initially a weak student growing up.[9] Eventually becoming a high-performing student, Adler entered the University of Vienna with plans to study medicine. Graduating in 1895, Adler initially practiced ophthalmology, but then switched to general practice, becoming well-liked amongst his patients.[10] During this time, Adler also became active in politics, joining the socialist party shortly after graduating from university. During this time Adler would go on to meet his future wife, Raissa Timofeyewna Epstein, with whom he later had four children.[11]
While working as a general practice physician, Adler began to see psychiatric patients, and the specificity he continually used to best treat their needs piqued his interest. Popular amongst patients for his friendly demeanor and willingness to follow whatever therapy seemed most appropriate for the particular patient, Adler would later take this mindset with him in his transition into the field of psychology.[12]
Adler’s pivot to psychology continued in 1900 when he attended psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud’s lecture to the Vienna Medical Association on his recently published book The Interpretation of Dreams.[13] While the audience was openly hostile, ridiculing Freud for his controversial, subversive takes on human behavior and motivations, Adler demonstrated his support for Freud by writing to a medical journal that Freud’s theories should be given the consideration they deserved. Freud was deeply flattered, he sent his thanks to Adler, and the two men met.
By 1910, Alder and Freud had forged a near decade-long relationship built on mutual respect, but after co-founding the Psychoanalytic Society the two psychologists began to grown apart in their professional and personal views.[14] While he was still active in the Psychoanalytic Society, Adler began his seminal studies on the inferiority complex.[15] Further, after he transitioned from working with Freud, Adler focused entirely on psychology, abandoning general practice. In the years before World War II, Adler established thirty-two child guidance clinics in Vienna and Germany, with the intention of helping teachers and children. His seminal work was a twenty-one chapter book, Guiding the Child: On the Principles of Individual Psychology, which Adler published in 1930.[16]
Already a frequent visitor to the United States throughout the 1920s and 1930s, Alfred and his family eventually relocated to New York because Adler’s Jewish heritage meant he was no longer safe in Nazi Germany.[17] Shortly before the family left Austria, all of Adler’s child guidance clinics were closed when the fascist Nazi party overthrew the Austrian Republic in 1934.[18] In the spring of 1937, while traveling to Aberdeen, Scotland on May 28th, Alfred collapsed from a heart attack and died before he reached the hospital.[19]
Introduction to Individual Psychology
Adler’s groundbreaking theory of Individual Psychology emphasizes the significance of an individual's subjective experiences, social context, and the pursuit of personal significance. Adler’s theory expressed his belief that every human personality is unique and indivisible, and his emphasis on the individual did not preclude the social. Rather, the social element was an “all-important” factor because in order to develop as an individual a person requires a social context. Adler's concept of “individual” refers to an individual's unique way of approaching life, influenced by their subjective perceptions, values, and goals.[20] He believed that an individual's lifestyle is established early in life and becomes a significant factor in shaping their overall psychological well-being.[21]
Holistic Perspective
Individual Psychology views individuals wholly, emphasizing connection between the mind, body, and spirit. The theory purports that it is essential to view the whole human being in order to understand their psychological functioning.[22] Unlike Freud's emphasis on the unconscious, Adler posited that people are conscious beings with the ability to set goals and make choices, and this in turn consciousness drives individuals to strive for their goals and a sense of significance.[23]
Inferiority and Compensation
A fundamental concept in Adler's theory is the feeling of inferiority. He argued that individuals are born with a sense of inferiority, stemming from their physical and psychological vulnerabilities. This feeling of inadequacy motivates them to strive for superiority or significance. Adler referred to this process as "compensation."[24] For example, a person who feels physically inferior overcompensates by excelling in sports or academics. This in turn gives them a sense of significance.
Striving for Significance
Central to Individual Psychology is the idea that humans are driven by a deep-seated desire to achieve a sense of significance or belonging. This striving for significance is a fundamental aspect of human motivation and is closely linked to a person's self-esteem and self-worth. Adler argued that individuals' actions and behaviors are aimed at attaining this sense of importance in their lives.[25]
Social Interest
Adler introduced the concept of "social interest" as a critical component of healthy psychological development. He believed that individuals are inherently social beings and that a strong sense of social interest fosters positive, cooperative, and prosocial behavior.[26] A lack of social interest may lead to maladaptive or selfish behaviors. To avoid this, Adler saw social interest as a key factor in achieving a sense of significance and fulfillment.
Birth Order & Sibling Relationships
Adler's theory also asserts that an individual's position in the family birth order can significantly influence their personality and behavior. He suggested that firstborns may be more motivated to strive for superiority and achievement, while later-born children might develop different strategies (e.g., having higher ambitions in career choice or having a higher likelihood of being thrill seeking) to gain significance. Sibling relationships and rivalries, according to Adler, play a crucial role in shaping one's personality.[27,28]
Inferiority Complex & Superiority Complex
Adler introduced the terms "inferiority complex" and "superiority complex" to describe maladaptive personality patterns. An inferiority complex develops when individuals are overwhelmed by their feelings of inadequacy, leading to a lack of self-esteem. Conversely, a superiority complex can develop when individuals overcompensate for their inferiority feelings, often exhibiting arrogant or narcissistic behaviors.[29]
Adler's ideas have left a lasting impact on the field of psychology, contributing to our understanding of the complex relationship between an individual's innate drives, their social context, and their lifelong journey to understand life’s significance. Taught today in psychology classrooms around the world, Adler's insights and theories provide valuable insights into the human condition and offer a foundation for promoting personal growth and well-being.
Contributed by: Kate Campbell
Editor: Jennifer (Ghahari) Smith, Ph.D.
References
1 McCluskey M. C. (2022). Revitalizing Alfred Adler: An Echo for Equality. Clinical social work journal, 50(4), 387–399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-021-00793-0
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid.
4 Ibid.
5 Sperry, J., & Sperry, L. (2019). Alfred Adler's Influence in the United States and Great Britain. The Journal of Individual Psychology 75(3), 183-184. https://doi.org/10.1353/jip.2019.0022.
6 Lamberson, K. A., & Wester, K. L. (2018). Feelings of inferiority: A first attempt to define the construct empirically. Journal of Individual Psychology, 74(2),172-187. https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/k_wester_feelings_2018.pdf
7 Kelland, M.D. (2023). Personality Theory in a Cultural Context. Libre Texts. https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Psychology/Culture_and_Community/Personality_Theory_in_a_Cultural_Context_(Kelland)/04%3A_Alfred_Adler_and_Harry_Stack_Sullivan/4.02%3A_Brief_Biography_of_Alfred_Adler
8 Ibid.
9 Bradburn, N. M. (1963). The Cultural Context Of Personality Theory. In J. M. Wepman & R. W. Heine (Eds.), Concepts of personality (pp. 333–360). Aldine Publishing Co. https://doi.org/10.1037/11175-012
10 Ibid.
11 Ibid.
12 McCluskey (2022)
13 Lamberson and Wester (2018)
14 McCluskey (2022)
15 Adler, A. (2019). The Fundamental Views of Individual Psychology. Journal of Individual Psychology, 75(3), 185–187. https://doi.org/10.1353/jip.2019.0023
16 Ibid.
17 Sperry & Sperry (2019)
18 Ibid.
19 McCluskey (2022)
20 Adler A. (1927). The Feeling of Inferiority and the Striving for Recognition. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 20(12), 1881–1886.
21 Ibid.
22 Overholser, J. C. (2010). Psychotherapy that strives to encourage social interest: A simulated interview with Alfred Adler. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 20(4), 347-363.
23 Ansbacher HL. Alfred Adler, pioneer in prevention of mental disorders. Individual Psychology: The Adlerian Journal of Research, Theory, & Practice. 1992;48(1):3–34.
24 McCluskey (2022)
25 Ibid.
26 Ibid.
27 Lamberson and Wester (2018)
28 Ibid.
29 Bradburn (1963)