Intergenerational Trauma
Overview
The American Psychological Association defines trauma as an emotional response to a terrible event. Immediately after the event, shock and denial are typical.[1] Intergenerational trauma refers to the ways in which trauma experienced in one generation affects the health and well-being of descendants of future generations.[2] This concept was first developed in 1966 to help explain years of generational challenges within families. This type of trauma is often also referred to as collective trauma or historical trauma.[3] Manifestations of intergenerational trauma can range from stress and anxiety disorders to learning disorders as well as communicative barriers leading to a lessened sense of trust and cohesiveness within the family dynamic. Trauma gets passed down through behaviors in shared environments, specific language use, biological factors and genetic factors.[4]
History & Early Developments
One of the first studies on intergenerational trauma was when Rakoff et. al (1966) documented high rates of psychological distress among children of Holocaust survivors.[5] A follow-up study conducted by Rowland-Klein & Dunlop (1998) found that children of Holocaust survivors exhibit symptoms of fear and mistrust, depressive mood, and guilt related to their personal unhappiness.[6] Other intergenerational impacts included parent-child enmeshment, overprotective parenting, and ambivalent styles of attachment.[7]
Evans-Campbell (2008) studied multiple generations of American Indian communities, and differentiated personal trauma from intergenerational trauma as distressing or life-threatening events which members of a group with a shared social identity experience together and pass on to their descendants.[8]
Thus, much of the current literature on intergenerational trauma comes from qualitative data collected from specific ethnic groups. This includes collective trauma survivors and their descendants from studies of the Holocaust, the Armenian genocide, the second world war (WWII) internment of Japanese-Americans and the colonization of Indigenous peoples.[9] Though Holocaust survivors and their children are the most widely studied and over the longest period of time, the collective traumas of other ethnic groups such as African Americans, Asian Americans, and Ukrainians are being studied as well.[10]
Symptoms/Manifestations
Trauma begins in one generation stemming from factors such as war, political instability, and early exposure to violence, racism or structural inequities.[11] Other legacies of trauma include colonialism, political violence, and migration-related stressors.[12] More broadly, effects of trauma may range from the psychological, to familial, social, cultural, neurobiological and possibly genetic.[13]
The generation who experiences historical trauma often remains silent about their experiences, even with their family members. This silence can contribute to difficulties in the relationship between survivor parents and their children. A study by Cai & Lee (2022) observed that when parents continue to suffer the consequences of their trauma without recognizing them, children are left to speculate about the reasons for the parents’ behavior. Because of this, children of trauma survivors lack knowledge regarding their family history and are less able to develop a coherent and positive sense of identity.[14]
Moreover, the negative intergenerational impacts of historical trauma have been shown to manifest in a myriad of ways including:[15,16]
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
Major depressive episodes
Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
High emotional neediness from parents
Authoritarian parenting styles
Low community trust and cohesiveness
Risky health behaviors
Food hoarding
Learning difficulties and problems in school
Because children experience and understand the world primarily through direct caregivers, they are profoundly affected by their parents’ modeling.[17] In one Rwandan-based study by Berckmoes et al., (2017) legacies of genocide were transmitted in family environments. Children reportedly suffered from economic disadvantage, experienced heavy family responsibilities, and regretted missing out on rights and opportunities. They reported feeling hurt and loss, suffered from family disruption because of conflicts between spouses, experienced stigma and social exclusion in the community and country and felt emotionally torn between family and future.[18]
Transmission Mechanisms
Transmission is an important concept used to describe how information of the oppressive or traumatic effects of a historical event is passed down to younger generations. This process is holistically referred to as “intergenerational transmission.” Several different factors have been posited as possible transmission mechanisms. One study by Bowers & Yehude (2016) found epigenetics, types of parenting, social learning, and shared environmental context to influence outcomes across generations.[19]
According to the American Psychological Association, language and parental behavior is a common transmission mechanism. Parents formulate fear-based “survival messages” that they pass on to their children and grandchildren, increasing interpersonal vulnerability. Moreover, parents exhibit fear of personal disclosure and not trusting mental health care providers making it more difficult for children to seek and accept support in the future.[20]
Interventions/Treatment
To prevent negative intergenerational impacts of historical trauma and promote collective healing, families should engage in intergenerational communication about historical trauma. This communication may take various forms, including conversations, storytelling, and development of shared narratives emphasizing collective resilience.[21]
Clinical systems which solely focus on presenting symptoms (e.g., anxiety and depression) without social and generational context are less likely to be effective, especially among marginalized communities. Evidence-based prevention interventions should instead focus on the care-giver child relationship as this is primarily affected by the trauma. Providers should consider cultural responsiveness and cultural heterogeneity.[22]
An integrated approach to healing intergenerational trauma has been proven effective. Examples of this include cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), guided imagery, narrative therapy (e.g., thoroughly discussing a client’s family dynamics and history) and timeline exploration activities (e.g., genograms, family trees); these therapies are often helpful in uncovering and distinguishing clients’ generational trauma from other trauma experiences. Much of intergenerational trauma is rooted in socio-cultural and historical events tied to specific ethnic groups so intervention needs to be tailored to the specific needs of each family.[23]
If you suspect you or a loved one are suffering from intergenerational trauma, please reach out to a licensed mental health professional (e.g., a psychotherapist, psychologist or psychiatrist) for guidance and healing support.
Contributed by: Kaylin Ong
Editor: Jennifer (Ghahari) Smith, Ph.D.
REFERENCES
1 American Psychological Association. (2021). Trauma and shock. https://www.apa.org/topics/trauma
2 Sangalang, C. C., & Vang, C. (2016). Intergenerational Trauma in Refugee Families: A Systematic Review. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health, 19(3), 745–754. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27659490/
3 Inter-generational Trauma: 6 Ways It Affects Families | Office for Institutional Equity. (n.d.). https://oie.duke.edu/inter-generational-trauma-6-ways-it-affects-families
4 DeAngelis, T. (2019). The legacy of trauma. Monitor on Psychology, 50(2). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2019/02/legacy-trauma
5 Braga, L. L., Mello, M. F., & Fiks, J. P. (2012). Transgenerational transmission of trauma and resilience: a qualitative study with Brazilian offspring of Holocaust survivors. BMC Psychiatry, 12(1).https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-244X-12-134
6 Rowland-Klein, D., & Dunlop, R. (1998). The transmission of trauma across generations: Identification with parental trauma in children of Holocaust survivors. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 32(3), 358–369.https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.3109/00048679809065528
7 Ibid.
8 Evans-Campbell, T. (2008). Historical Trauma in American Indian/Native Alaska Communities. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23(3), 316–338. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18245571/
9 Bezo, B., & Maggi, S. (2015). Living in “survival mode:” Intergenerational transmission of trauma from the Holodomor genocide of 1932–1933 in Ukraine. Social Science & Medicine, 134, 87–94. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25931287/
10 Ibid.
11 Fortuna, L. R., Tobón, A. L., Anglero, Y. L., Postlethwaite, A., Porche, M. V., & Rothe, E. M. (2022). Focusing on Racial, Historical and Intergenerational Trauma, and Resilience. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 31(2), 237–250. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35361362/
12 Cerdeña, J. P., Rivera, L. M., & Spak, J. M. (2021). Intergenerational trauma in Latinxs: A scoping review. Social Science & Medicine, 270, 113662. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33476987/
13 DeAngelis (2019)
14 Cai, J., & Lee, R. M. (2022). Intergenerational Communication about Historical Trauma in Asian American Families. Adversity and Resilience Science, 3, 233–245. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35692379/
15 DeAngelis (2019)
16 Danieli, Y., Norris, F. H., & Engdahl, B. (2017). A question of who, not if: Psychological disorders in Holocaust survivors’ children. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 9(Suppl 1), 98–106.https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2016-45104-001
17 Franco, F. (2021, January 8). Understanding Intergenerational Trauma: An Introduction for Clinicians. GoodTherapy. https://www.goodtherapy.org/blog/Understanding_Intergenerational_Trauma
18 Berckmoes, L., Eichelsheim, V., Rutayisire, T., Richters, A., & Hola, B. (2017). How Legacies of Genocide Are Transmitted in the Family Environment: A Qualitative Study of Two Generations in Rwanda. Societies, 7(3), 24. https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4698/7/3/24
19 Bowers, M. E., & Yehuda, R. (2015). Intergenerational Transmission of Stress in Humans. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41(1), 232–244. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26279078/
20 DeAngelis (2019)
21 Cai & Lee (2022)
22 Fortuna et al., (2022)
23 Phillips, L. (2023, January 25). Generational trauma: Uncovering and interrupting the cycle. Counseling Today. https://ct.counseling.org/2023/01/generational-trauma-uncovering-and-interrupting-the-cycle/