Executive Functioning (EF)
Overview
The term executive functioning (EF) refers to the set of cognitive processes that allow us to create plans, focus our attention, follow instructions, and perform tasks at the same time, simultaneously.[1] These skills act as the building blocks of learning and development. The formation of executive functioning skills starts soon after birth and continues until early adulthood. The ages of 3-5 provide a crucial time period of growth for these skills.[2] When disruptions in typical development occur, people may experience difficulties in performing functional tasks and develop executive dysfunction as well as learning disabilities.[3]
History
The concept of executive functioning was first developed in the 1950s when psychologists and neuroscientists were becoming increasingly interested in the neural mechanisms behind intelligence as well as other functions taking place in the prefrontal cortex.[4] Through observation, they deduced that there is a clear difference between automatic and controlled processes. Automatic processing occurs unconsciously, and controlled processing occurs consciously. Knowing this, the idea of ‘Selective Attention’ was formed. This idea implies that an individual is able to select certain stimuli and focus on them for further processing, while at the same time ignoring or repressing other stimuli.[5] In 1975, Dr. Karl Pribram was one of the first to develop the term executive functioning when referring to these processes that occurred in the prefrontal cortex; since then “executive functioning” has been used as an umbrella term to include any function that involves processing, acknowledging, and reacting to information.[6]
Types of Executive Functions
There are seven main executive functions: problem-solving, self-awareness, inhibition, verbal and nonverbal working memory, emotional regulation, and motivational regulation.[7]
Problem-Solving: The process of problem-solving includes the proper identification of a problem, the identification of possible solutions to the problem, and the actual act of performing the chosen solution.[8]
Self-Awareness: Self-awareness is the ability to perceive and understand one's own actions and thoughts, and recognize when they do or do not align with one’s standards.[9]
Inhibition: This refers to the ability to consciously or unconsciously limit one’s impulses or behaviors as a result of moral reasoning, unwanted consequences, or lack of self-assurance.[10]
Nonverbal and Verbal Working Memory: Working memory involves the ability to both retain and store pieces of learned information and recall them for later use.[11] Nonverbal memory refers to the processing and storing of nonverbal cues and information, such as shape, color, size, taste, and feeling.[12] Verbal memory then refers to the processing and storing of cues and information that has been verbalized, such as lyrics, names, and numbers.[13]
Emotional Regulation: This refers to one’s ability to control emotions in a way that promotes healthy behaviors in stimulating situations.[14]
Motivational Regulation: Also known as Self-Determination, this refers to all of the abilities one possesses that allow them to develop, maintain, and reward/increase specific degrees of motivation.[15]
Disruptions and Disorders
Disruptions to one's executive functioning can happen as a result of brain injury, abnormal development during the prenatal period and post birth, and misuse of drugs and alcohol; it can also be comorbid with other mental health conditions such as ADHD, autism, and mood disorders. People who have trouble with executive functioning skills typically still acquire normal movement and perceptual skills, but have a hard time processing and reacting to certain stimuli.[16] Often, patients will be diagnosed with Executive Functioning Disorder (EFD).[17]
Some examples those with EFD might experience include:
Struggling to move from task to task
Trouble planning or following through with a task
It is important to note this differs from general procrastination, which is the active, voluntary choice to delay a task.
Hyper focusing on one thing
Daydreaming or “spacing out” often
Struggling to control impulses
Trouble explaining one’s thought process clearly
Treatments and Maintenance
Many people struggle daily with certain executive functioning skills and struggle to maintain healthy levels of executive functioning as they grow older.[18] Using calendars, setting reminders, taking notes, and staying organized are simple things that people can do to improve day-to-day functioning, but sometimes more professional help is also needed. Speech-language pathologists (i.e., speech therapists) typically assist those with EFD. Speech therapists help individuals not only develop language skills but provide training on how to interpret language and symbols as well as interact in social situations.[19] Focusing on the environment that an individual is learning in, is also important.[20] Some people with EFD have the ability to request accommodations that allow them to work in an environment (e.g. work and school) that is best set up for them to learn and function comfortably and successfully. With proper diagnosis and management, those with EFD can experience more productive and fulfilling lives.
Contributed by: Hope Blake
Editor: Jennifer (Ghahari) Smith, Ph.D.
Those interested in having their executive functioning tested can learn more and request an assessment here.
References
1 Harvard University. (2020). Executive Function & Self-regulation. Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. https://developingchild.harvard.edu/science/key-concepts/executive-function/#:~:text=Executive%20function%20and%20self%2Dregulation,and%20juggle%20multiple%20tasks%20successfully.
2 Harvard University. (2020). Inbrief: Executive function. Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/inbrief-executive-function/#:~:text=Tests%20measuring%20different%20forms%20of,throughout%20adolescence%20and%20early%20adulthood.
3 Cleveland Clinic. (2022). Executive dysfunction: What it is, symptoms & treatment. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/23224-executive-dysfunction#:~:text=Executive%20dysfunction%20is%20a%20behavioral,development%20disorders%20and%20mood%20disorders.
4 Goldstein, S., Naglieri, J., Princiotta, D., & Otero, T. (n.d.). Articles. Introduction: A history of executive functioning as a theoretical and clinal construct. https://samgoldstein.com/resources/articles/general/a-history-of-executive-functioning-as-a-theoretical-and-clinical-construct.aspx
5 Ibid.
6 Ibid.
7 Psychology Today. (n.d.). Executive function. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/executive-function
8 American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Apa Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological Association. https://dictionary.apa.org/problem-solving
9 Betz, M. (2022). What is self-awareness, and why is it important? BetterUp. https://www.betterup.com/blog/what-is-self-awareness#:~:text=%22Self%2Dawareness%20is%20the%20ability,align%20with%20your%20internal%20standards.
10 American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Apa Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological Association. https://dictionary.apa.org/inhibition
11 Hill Learning Center, (2022). 7 executive functioning skills your child should have - hill learning center. Hill Learning Center. https://www.hillcenter.org/7-executive-functioning-skills-your-child-should-have/
12 CogniFit. (2017). Non-Verbal Memory. Non-verbal Memory- Cognitive Skills. https://www.cognifit.com/science/cognitive-skills/nonverbal-memory#:~:text=Nonverbal%20memory%20is%20the%20ability,(neither%20written%20or%20spoken)
13 Schwering, S. C., & MacDonald, M. C. (2020). Verbal Working Memory as Emergent from Language Comprehension and Production. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 14, 68. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2020.00068
14 Psychology Today. (n.d.). Emotion regulation. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/basics/emotion-regulation#:~:text=Emotion%20regulation%20is%20the%20ability,to%20feel%20happy%20or%20calm.
15 Cherry, K. (2022). How does self-determination theory explain motivation? Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-self-determination-theory-2795387
16 Neuroscientifically Challenged. Know your brain: Prefrontal cortex. Neuroscientifically Challenged. (n.d.). https://neuroscientificallychallenged.com/posts/know-your-brain-prefrontal-cortex
17 LD Resources Foundation Inc. (2021). Signs and symptoms of executive function disorder (EFD). LDRFA. https://www.ldrfa.org/signs-and-symptoms-of-executive-function-disorder-efd/
18 Geller, A. (2023). A guide to executive function disorder in adults. Connected Speech Pathology.https://connectedspeechpathology.com/blog/a-guide-to-executive-function-skills-in-adults
19 Ibid.
20 Ibid.