Psychiatrist: Carl G. Jung
OVERVIEW
Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist, Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) is most-notably known for his theory of analytic psychology, which was inspired by Sigmund Freud’s idea of psychoanalysis.[1]
Born in Kesswil, Switzerland, he was raised by his father (who was a philologist and a pastor) and his stay-at-home mother. Jung’s mother struggled with depression and often spoke of paranormal experiences that perplexed him.[2] While growing up, Jung was known to mediate conflict and observe the behavior of his parents and teachers. Destined to become a minister, Jung forsake the family tradition and instead studied medicine to become a psychiatrist.[3]
Jung holds a noteworthy position in the histories of psychiatry and psychology. He graduated with a M.D. in 1902 from Zürich, focusing his studies on patients’ “illogical responses to stimulus words”. Jung’s analytic studies led him to the finding of unconscious and emotionally-charged clusters of associations.[4] His theories (e.g., personality traits, archetypes and the collective unconscious) advanced the understanding of personality psychology. Jung devoted his life to developing ideas around psychology and religion, which led to pioneering psychotherapy for middle-aged and elderly adults.[5]
Background
Jung was a close collaborator with Freud between the years of 1907 and 1912.[6] He was widely expected to become the successor to Freud, however, a serious disagreement caused a rift in their relationship. A publication by Jung, Psychology of the Unconscious (1916), presented countering ideas to Freud’s theory of neurosis being solely related to one’s sexuality.[7] Jung’s focus on the correlation between the unconscious and one’s personality development helped middle-aged and older individuals to discover the meaning of life again. Later, Jung became a professor of psychology at the Federal Polytechnical University in Zürich (1933–41) and professor of medical psychology at the University of Basel (1943).[8]
One of Jung’s major publications was The Psychology of the Unconscious (1912) which is a revised version of Symbols of Transformation in the Collected Works (1902).[9] Carl Jung comments on his influential work, “This book became a landmark, set up on the spot where two ways divided. Because of its imperfections and its incompleteness it laid down the program to be followed for the next few decades of my life.”[10] In his book, Jung presents the notion that one’s libido is not primarily sexual energy, as described by Freud. Rather, Jung discusses libido as psychic energy which springs from one’s unconscious and appears in conscious symbols.[11] Jung’s work symbolizes the concept of the libido as a metaphorical “hero” who battles a symbol of the unconscious presented as the “mother.” Jung’s analytic perspective on symbols is derived from various perspectives (e.g., mythology, religion, ethnology, art, literature, and psychiatry).[12] The Psychology of the Unconscious foreshadows Jung’s well-known theoretical components (e.g., archetypes and the collective unconscious) which later become fundamental concepts in his study of personality psychology.
Personality Typology
The Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is an assessment that was later founded on the theories of Carl Jung by Isabel Briggs Myers, and her mother, Katharine Briggs.[13] The MBTI does not have methods of quantifying or scientifically measuring the amount of personality traits using typology. However, typology assessments designed by Jung and the Myers aim to decipher which way one naturally tends towards from a lens of personality traits.[14] Both areas of personality psychology and psychodynamic theory were heavily influenced by Jung’s ideas that later entered mainstream literature and culture (e.g., complexes, archetypes, introverted, extraverted, typology).[15]
Jung’s concept of personality typology assesses personality functions and assigns a personality type by measuring one’s expression of the following criteria on a spectrum.
Introversion vs. Extroversion: Signifies the source and direction of one’s energy expression. Extraverts operate in the external world to express and gain energy whereas introverts source energy from their own internal world.[16]
Sensing vs. Intuiting: Represents the nature of one’s learning style and perception of information. A sensing learner prefers concrete information and pays attention to detail utilizing the senses. Whereas an intuitive learning style uses theories and abstract ideas to consider potential outcomes and imagine the future.[17]
Thinking vs. Feeling: Reflects on one’s decision making process. Thinkers emphasize logic and reason to base decisions on one’s personal ideas of right and wrong. Feelers, on the other hand, base decisions on emotion and immediate intuitive sensing of a situation.[18]
Judging vs. Perceiving: Investigates how one implements processed information. Judging processors prefer structure and organization in their activities and schedules whereas perceivers are more flexible and adaptable.[19]
Numerous self-reported personality assessments based on MBTI theory exist with ranging validity. An assessment designed by Open Source Psychometrics Project (2023) was compared with three other online MBTI tests and was statistically reported to be the most accurate typology test out of the four.[20] The OEJTS assessment can be taken for free online and is recommended for educational or entertainment purposes only. An article by Reynierse (2012) notes that MBTI preference scores are estimates which are subject to bias or variability due to the limitations of the measurement instrument.[21]
Theoretical Components
Following the loss of his relationship with Freud, Carl Jung began a series of experiments in an effort to understand personal fantasies and dreams he believed to stem from his unconscious.[22] Jung went on to develop his own theories, known as Jungian or Analytical Psychology. Freud considered the unconscious mind to hold repressed desires mainly related to sexuality, while Jung believed that various motivators existed alongside one’s sexuality and unconscious desires.[23] Throughout his career, Carl Jung continued to focus on his own concepts of the unconscious mind. However, he also expanded on Freud’s theories regarding repressed sexuality when studying a collective society. Jung studied three levels of consciousness - the conscious mind, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious.
Conscious Mind: Refers to all the events and experiences that one is aware of.
Personal Unconscious: Represents one’s experiences from the past and repressed desires that largely do not exist in conscious awareness.
Collective Unconscious: Encapsulates cultural knowledge and symbols (e.g., archetypes and schemas) that may not be part of one’s primary experience, but still have an impact on collective society.
Jungian (or analytical therapy) dives into a client’s relationship with their personal unconscious with the aim of addressing the root of mental health issues. An approach used in Jungian therapy asks clients to keep a dream journal or to complete word association tests to analyze patterns of the personal unconscious.[24] The main goal of Jungian therapy is to better understand the correlation between unconscious symbolism and its influence on one’s behavior. Jung wished for himself and his patients to achieve the integration of all past experiences (whether positive or negative) in order to live a healthy and balanced life by acknowledging and healing the root of an issue.[25]
Analytical Psychology
Stemming from inspiration following Freud’s idea of psychoanalysis and Alfred Adler’s concept of individual psychology, Jung named his approach, analytical psychology.[26] Jung’s approach investigates the psyche in an open-minded fashion with the use of spirituality alongside existing findings related to one’s psyche. Existing scientific findings in Jung’s time mostly focused on how the psyche was a function of the brain, therefore, relying heavily on activity from the brain to explain the phenomenon of the psyche.[27] However, Jung’s background and interest in Eastern philosophy led him to consider the possibility of a collective unconscious which engages symbolism when analyzing one’s personal unconscious.
Carl Jung believed that the psyche sought balance much like the concept of entropy from the field of physics.[28] The concept of entropy states that all energy within a system will even or balance out. Jung applied the principle of dynamic psychic energy to the concept of motivation, noting that people are driven to reduce the imbalance of opposing emotions such as love and hate.[29] One method of reducing the imbalance or cognitive dissonance in one’s psyche is to understand opposing parts of one’s personality in order to grow. Jung believed that a “well-balanced” individual would be able to embrace all parts of opposition within oneself to embrace all areas of the psyche.
The Collective Unconscious
Carl Jung (1953) once said, “Everything that irritates us about others can lead us to a better understanding of ourselves.”[30]
The collective unconscious represents a universal version of one’s personal unconscious which consists of shared mental patterns and traces of memory.[31] Jung proposed that a human mind has innate characteristics “imprinted” on it stemming from evolution and ancestral past. Fears and phobias (e.g., darkness, snakes, bats and heights) have been considered “prepared” learning that originates from symbolism.[32] Jung analyzed ancestral memories and fears as a method to understand sub-systems of one’s personality. The concept of “deja vu” was considered an example of the collective unconscious by Jung in that it potentially represents a past experience.[33]
Jung regarded personal instincts (e.g., hunger, sexuality, creativity, activity and reflection) as natural, unlearned impulses that inspire psychological motivation from birth. Due to the universal nature of human instincts, Jung utilized the ubiquitousness of predisposition to support the theory of a collective unconscious. Religion, art, and music were also considered to be representative of a collective experience that influenced behavior. Thus, supporting the Jungian idea that a societal or universal consciousness existed among all humans.[34] In Jung’s book, The Structure of the Psyche, the collective unconscious is explained as, “consisting of mythological motifs or primordial images, for which reason the myths of all nations are its real exponents.”[35]
Archetypes
The collective unconscious contains a fountain of “psychic resources” common among all individuals which can be understood as intuitive characteristics. Jung referred to these psychic resources as archetypes.[36] Symbolic images passed down through generations of a culture, Jung believed these archetypes to be inherited and not learned through behavioral observation. Similar life experiences across generations over time created “a significant impression upon the mind.”[37] Archetypes have been presented as images in ancient myths and fables such as the Ancient Greek hero, Odysseus, in Homer’s poem The Odyssey.[38] The captivating nature of such stories is why Jung believed archetypes to have such a profound influence on inter-cultural society. While various phenomena can be considered symbolic, the most common archetypes include:
Self - The wholeness of one’s personality and center of the psyche (e.g., the mandala and Christ).[39]
Shadow - A dark and emotional representation of the psyche symbolically represented by the Devil, dragons, or monsters.[40]
Anima - Relational and sensual aspects being present in men (e.g., The Beast from Beauty and The Beast gaining self-knowledge).[41]
Animus - A presence of reason and spirit in women (e.g., Sophia or the Wisdom of God from the Gnostic mythology being the savior of the decayed men).[42]
Persona - A mask or facade that one presents to the world as a means to conceal the inner self.
Hero - One who overcomes evil and death; often has a miraculous but humble birth (e.g., Hercules and Harry Potter).[43]
Wise Old Man - An elderly man referred to as a sage who is known for great wisdom, knowledge, and judgment (e.g., Albus Dumbledore, Gandalf).[44]
Trickster - One that defies duality by being both loved and hated due to their mischievous nature and rule-breaking behavior (e.g., Hermes from Ancient Greek Mythology and Loki from Norse Mythology).[45]
Personality Development
Contrary to Freud’s belief that one’s personality is wholly shaped during childhood experiences,[46] Carl Jung noted that midlife years are “a time of supreme psychological importance” and “the moment of greatest unfolding” in one’s life.[47]
Jung identified four stages of personality development that reflect upon and represent the growth of one’s consciousness: childhood; youth; middle-age and old age.[48]
Childhood
From birth until puberty, a child goes through three phases of development that shape their overall personality. The anarchic phase, also referred to as “islands of consciousness” outlines the time of life where consciousness is irregular and primitive images cannot be adequately verbalized. As a child progresses towards the development of an ego and the onset of logical and verbal thinking, individuals move into the monarchic phase. During this phase, the islands of consciousness enlarge and children begin to perceive themselves objectively.[49] The final phase in childhood is known as the dualistic phase in which one’s ego identification is split into objective and subjective parts. Jung believed that children’s personalities are significantly shaped and influenced by their care-givers.[50] As time goes on, children begin to develop a personality that is slightly different from that of their parents or care-givers.
Youth
Personality development in one’s youth is defined by Jung as the period from puberty until middle life (~35-40 years old). During one’s youth, a main goal is to strive for psychic and physical independence from one’s care-givers. According to Jung, milestones of the youth personality development period include an increase in activity, sexual maturation, a widening of consciousness, and most importantly, the realization that one’s “carefree” childhood phase is coming to an end.[51] Jung writes, “Something in us wishes to remain a child, to be unconscious or, at most, conscious only of the ego, to reject everything strange, or else subject it to our will, to do nothing, or else indulge our own craving for pleasure or power.”[52] In other words, the youth phase outlines the confrontation of reality and the desire to achieve goals related to establishing a secure and successful place for oneself in the world.
Middle Life
After a long period of youth, one’s personality development in middle-life begins to strive for an expanded consciousness beginning around age 35–40 and ending around the age of 65. Conscious growth encourages psychological health and allows one to find new meaning in life other than achieving success in the business sector or family life.[53] Significant personality changes were believed by Jung to occur during this phase and one’s perspective was expected to shift from qualities of extraversion to introversion. For example, the first half of life might focus on the objective reality (e.g., education, career, and family). Whereas, the second half of life will be spent looking inwards at the subjective self by increasing awareness of the unconscious and shifting interests from physical and material (e.g., spiritual, intuition, and philosophical interests).[54] Jung believed that individuals might start to experience a slow change in character or begin to identify personality shifts from their childhood years.[55]
Old Age
In later years around the age of 65-70, one’s ego was believed by Jung to begin to recede in importance and align with one’s larger perspective of life as a whole. Jung referred to personality development in older age as analogous to when the sun begins to sink towards the horizon.[56] According to Philip and Armstrong (1970), Jung was one of the first psychological thinkers to consider the positive aspects of aging while still acknowledging the prevalence of discontent and loss.[57] In older Jungian personality development, a large emphasis is placed on “individuation” where the ego that was once so earnestly held onto begins to fade into a more insignificant placement in one’s psyche. Moreover, Jung noted that older people of various cultures have been perceived as “the guardians of the mysteries and the laws” which relates to the wise old man archetype.[58]
Discussion
Striking a balance between the conscious and the unconscious mind is at the core of Jung’s analytical approach to psychotherapy. Analytical therapy, also known as Jungin therapy, is built on the idea that one’s unconscious mind is a source of wisdom that fosters the potential for psychological growth.[59] Mental health issues (e.g., depression, addiction, and anxiety) were believed by Jung to stem from a blocked authentic self that created destructive relationship patterns in one’s life. Similar to Freud, Jung worked with people to unpack problematic symptoms deriving from childhood trauma. As discussed, Jung once viewed Freud as a mentor and worked alongside him to study the caveats of one’s unconsciously driven behaviors. However, the two experienced a rift due to Jung’s disagreement of Freud’s focus on repressed and expressed sexuality.[60]
Many of Freud’s apprentices separated themselves from the belief that sexuality was the main driver behind all human behavior. Jung, for example, ascribed dream interpretations to the dreamer’s unique associations whereas Freud advocated for the idea that dreams were indications of one’s deepest desires and often symbolically sexual in nature.[61] Throughout his career, Jung strived to understand the correlation between spirituality and psychology. In 1955 Jung stated, “We must remember that the rationalistic attitude of the West is not the only possible one and is not all-embracing, but is in many ways a prejudice and a bias that ought perhaps to be corrected.”[62]
Psychiatrists like Freud were skeptical of Jung's belief of the paranormal and spiritual aspects of personality psychology. However, many of Jung’s theories were built upon psychic phenomena such as his theory of synchronicity.[63] Even though Jung held a healthy level of skepticism, he regarded coincidental situations as examples of psycho-psychic phenomena. In other words, Jung believed that moments of “deja vu” or paranormal activity that he witnessed were spiritually significant and he enjoyed studying such instances.[64]
Overall, Carl Jung contributed a significant portion of today’s knowledge surrounding personality development and the idea of the psyche. By analyzing the correlation between spirituality and psychology, Jung arrived at his concept of a collective unconscious. Analytical theory and concepts of personality development led to the popularization of personality typology which is widely known and used for educational and entertainment purposes today. Positive outcomes of personality typology can include self-awareness and conscious growth. Finally, we owe to Jung the broadening of dream interpretation, free-associations, existential analysis, and personality development.[65]
Contributed by: Tori Steffen
Editor: Jennifer (Ghahari) Smith, Ph.D.
References
1 Fordham, M. (2022). Carl Jung. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carl-Jung
2 Practical Psychology. (2022). Carl Jung Biography: Psychologists. https://practicalpie.com/carl-jung/
3 Fordham (2022)
4 Ibid.
5 Ibid.
6 Ibid.
7 Ibid.
8 Ibid.
9 Ibid.
10 Princeton University Press. (2023). Psychology of the Unconscious: A Study of the Transformations and Symbolisms of the Libido. Princeton University. https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691090252/psychology-of-the-unconscious
11 Princeton University Press (2023)
12 Ibid.
13 The Myers and Briggs Foundation. The Myers and Briggs Foundation - MBTI® basics. (2022). https://www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type/mbti-basics/
14 Twowp. (2021). Jungian personality types: A simple introduction. The World of Work Project. https://worldofwork.io/2019/03/jungian-personality-types/#:~:text=Jung's%20typology%20considers%20individuals%20to,the%20terms%20Introversion%20and%20Extroversion.
15 Anonymous. (2022). Who is Carl Jung? Jung Society of Washington. https://www.jung.org/who-is-carl-jung
16 Twowp (2021)
17 Cherry, K. (2023). How Jung's theory of personality can explain how you learn. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/jungs-theory-of-personality-learning-styles-2795160
18 Cherry (2023)
19 Ibid.
20 Open Psychometrics. (2023). A statistical comparison of the OEJTS with other on-line tests. Personality Tests. http://openpsychometrics.org/tests/OEJTS/comparison/
21 Reynierse, J. (2012). “Toward an Empirically Sound and Radically Revised Type Theory". The Journal of Psychological Type 72(1). https://www.capt.org/research/article/JPT_Vol72_01_0312.pdf
22 Allen, C. (2020). Carl Jung. The Balance of Personality. https://pdx.pressbooks.pub/thebalanceofpersonality/chapter/chapter-5-carl-jung/
23 Hopper, E. (2018). The life of Carl Jung, founder of Analytical Psychology. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/biography-of-carl-jung-4164462
24 Hopper (2018)
25 Ibid.
26 Allen (2020)
27 Ibid.
28 Ibid.
29 Ibid.
30 Marinos, N. (2023). Carl Gustav Jung. Psychodynamic Psychotherapy. https://www.nikosmarinos.com/carl-gustav-jung.html
31 Mcleod, S. (2023). Carl Jung's theories: Archetypes, personality, & collective unconscious. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/carl-jung.html
32 Seligman, M. E. P. (1971). Preparedness and phobias. Behavior Therapy, 2(3), 307-20. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0005789471800643
33 Byron-Cox, H. (2021). Carl Jung's Theory of the Collective Unconscious. Study.com. https://study.com/academy/lesson/collective-unconscious-definition-examples.html
34 Byron-Cox (2021)
35 Jung, C. G., Adler, G., & C., H. R. F. (2014). Collected Works of C.G. Jung, volume 8. Princeton University Press.
36 Allen (2020)
37 Jung, C. G. (1940). The integration of the personality. London, England: Kegal Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd. https://archive.org/details/integrationofper0000jung_v6n1/page/n5/mode/2up
38 Blumberg, N. (2023, March 29). Odyssey. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Odyssey-epic-by-Homer
39 Allen (2020)
40 Ibid.
41 Aropa. (2022). Carl Jung Resources and Archetypes. Carl Jung - archetypes - Animus. https://www.carl-jung.net/animus.html
42 Aropa (2022)
43 Allen (2020)
44 Know Your Archetypes. (2022). What is the wise old man archetype? https://knowyourarchetypes.com/wise-old-man-archetype/
45 Aletheia. (2022). 11 trickster archetypes that provoke and heighten your consciousness. LonerWolf. https://lonerwolf.com/trickster-archetypes/
46 Traylor, J., Overstreet, L., and Lang, D. (2022). Psychodynamic theory: Freud. Individual and Family Development Health and Wellbeing. https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/individualfamilydevelopment/chapter/freuds-psychodynamic-theory/#:~:text=Embed-,Theory%20of%20Psychosexual%20Development,series%20of%20stages%20during%20childhood.
47 Jacobi, J. & Hull, R. F. C. (1970). C. G. Jung – Psychological reflections. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers. https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691017860/cg-jung
48 Tutorialspoint. (2022). Development of personality by Carl Jung. Online Courses and eBooks Library. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/development-of-personality-by-carl-jung#:~:text=Jung%20identified%20four%20developmental%20stages,with%20its%20brightness%20representing%20consciousness.
49 Tutorialspoint (2022)
50 Ibid.
51 Ibid.
52 Philip, A. T., & Armstrong, T. (1970). The stages of life according to Carl Jung. The American Institute for Learning and Human Development. https://www.institute4learning.com/2020/04/10/the-stages-of-life-according-to-carl-jung/
53 Tutorialspoint (2022)
54 Ibid.
55 Philip & Armstrong (1970)
56 Ibid.
57 Ibid.
58 Ibid.
59 Routledge. (2022). What is Jungian Psychology?. Taylor and Francis Group. https://www.routledge.com/blog/article/what-is-jungian-psychology
60 Routledge (2022)
61 Ibid.
62 Jung, C. G. (1955). Synchronicity, an acausal connecting principle. https://www.goodreads.com/work/quotes/822546-synchronizit-t-als-ein-prinzip-akausaler-zusammenh-nge
63 Routledge (2022)
64 Brandroom, Concordia, S. B., Cosme, C., Comsti, N. A., Castillo-M.d., R., Aspiras, R., Salta, E., Moran, R., Yuvallos, A., Cruz, A., & Catienza, K. (2018). Carl Jung’s fascination with the occult. Lifestyle.INQ. https://lifestyle.inquirer.net/294281/carl-jungs-fascination-occult/
65 Boeree, C. G. (2006). Carl Jung. Personality Theories. https://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/jung.html