Coping Mechanisms
Overview
Coping mechanisms are any conscious or nonconscious adjustment or adaptation someone takes to decrease psychological stress (e.g., tension and anxiety) in a stressful situation.[1] Coping is usually triggered by situational life changes and stressors, in an effort to maintain mental health and emotional well-being. While such stressors are often described as negative events (e.g., the death of a loved one, loss of a job or divorce), positive changes in life (e.g., marriage, birth, moving, career change) can also cause stress which requires the use of coping skills to adapt.[2] Stressors can also be acute or long-term (e.g., chronic pain, chronic illness or long-lasting financial problems).[3]
At its core, coping strategies are the behaviors, thoughts, and emotions used to adjust to life changes in an effort to feel better.[4,5] Not all coping mechanisms have equal effect: they impact people differently and can even vary in effect/response within the same person, over time.[6] Differences in coping styles can usually reflect differences in personality. Further, since coping is a process rather than an event, people may alternate between several coping strategies in order to cope with a stressful situation.[7]
Coping Styles
There are several coping styles people may use, with some proving more effective than others, depending on the nature of the stressor and the person utilizing them. Not all coping styles are positive; often unconsciously, ineffective coping mechanisms may be used by someone during stressful events or internal conflict. These ineffective strategies (e.g., maladaptive coping mechanisms) are counterproductive[8] and do not provide long-term relief.
Coping is generally categorized into the following four major categories:[9]
Problem-Focused - Addresses the problem causing the distress. Examples of this style include active coping, planning, restraint coping, and suppression of competing activities.
Emotion-Focused - Aims to reduce the negative emotions associated with the problem. Examples of this style include positive reframing, acceptance, turning to religion, and humor.
Meaning-Focused - Uses cognitive strategies to derive and manage the meaning of the situation. Examples of this style include utilizing one’s religious or spiritual beliefs, values and existential goals (e.g., purpose in life or guiding principles).
Social Coping - During support-seeking, an individual reduces stress by seeking emotional or instrumental support from their community. Examples of this style include reaching out to friends, family, a therapist or other social support group.
Positive Coping Strategies
Positive coping responses keep someone in the present moment, giving them chances to actively work toward solving their problems.[10] UCLA Health offers the following positive strategies one may employ:[11]
Humor - Pointing out the amusing aspects of the problem at hand, or "positive reframing," is thought to help deal with small failures.
Seeking Support - Asking for help, or finding emotional support from family members or friends, can be an effective way of maintaining emotional health during a stressful period.
Problem-Solving - As described above, problem solving is an instrumental coping mechanism that aims to locate the source of the problem and determine solutions. This coping mechanism is often helpful in work situations.
Relaxation - Engaging in relaxing activities, or practicing calming techniques, can help to manage stress and improve overall coping.
Physical Recreation - Regular exercise, such as running, or team sports, is a good way to handle the stress of given situation. Additionally, the following relaxation techniques can be especially helpful: yoga, meditation, progressive muscle relaxation.
Adjusting Expectations - Anticipating various outcomes to scenarios in life may assist in preparing for the stress associated with any given change or event.
Negative Coping Strategies
Conversely, some coping strategies or responses are not as helpful as others, and can have adverse negative effects. While negative coping responses may feel good in the short-term, they are temporary distractions. Over time, these strategies can wear someone down and often make their stress worse.[12] The following negative coping strategies should be avoided:[13]
Denial - Complete avoidance of the issue may lead to denying that a problem even exists. Denial is usually maintained by distractions, such as excessive alcohol consumption, overworking, or sleeping more than usual.
Self-Blame - Internalizing the issue, and blaming oneself (beyond just taking responsibility for one's actions), leads to low self-esteem and potentially depression.
Venting - An externalizing coping technique, venting is the outward expression of emotions, usually in the company of friends or family. In moderation this can be healthy; however, ruminating on the negative can lead to strained relationships over time.
Complications / Maladaptive Coping
Algorani & Gupta (2022) note that maladaptive coping refers to coping mechanisms that are associated with poor mental health outcomes and higher levels of psychopathology symptoms.[14] Such examples include disengagement, avoidance, and emotional suppression.[15]
The relationship between maladaptive coping mechanisms and health disorders is numerous. Santarnecchi et al., (2018) demonstrate how psychiatric disorders such as PTSD, anxiety, and major depression are correlated with coping styles related to avoidance.[16] Further, Casagrande et al., (2019) explain how cardiac patients with more severe symptoms also tend to use maladaptive coping strategies.[17] Additionally, Meggiolaro et al., (2016) found that roughly one-in-four cancer patients tend to use a maladaptive coping mechanism.[18] It is especially important for health professionals to be aware of this increased likelihood of patients utilizing a maladaptive coping mechanism, especially more so as a disease progresses, in order to best support the individual and help them find positive coping strategies.
The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs offers the following negative coping strategies that people should avoid:[19]
Substance Abuse - While one may try and use drugs or alcohol to escape their problems, help them sleep, or make anxious symptoms go away, substance abuse can cause serious problems. Additionally, drinking or using drugs can put one’s relationships, job, and health at risk. Further, under the influence of alcohol or drugs, people often make bad decisions.
Avoiding Others - Certain social situations may cause stress, make someone angry, or remind them of bad memories. Therefore, they may try to avoid doing things with other people, including friends and family. However, avoiding others can make a person feel isolated and increase feelings of sadness and fear. As social support is critical to healthy coping, it’s important to reach out to others and remember that, “You are not alone.”
Staying Always on Guard - Especially after going through a trauma, it may seem reasonable to try to remain extra alert and on the lookout for danger at all times. However, this form of coping only leads to one feeling stressed, fearful, and worn out.
Avoiding Reminders of a Trauma - Trying to avoid bad memories or trying to shut out feelings may seem reasonable. However, avoiding thinking about a trauma or avoiding seeking help may keep distress at bay for a time, but makes things worse in the long-run as it prevents someone from making progress and healing.
Anger and Violent Behavior - A stressor can make someone feel angry, especially if they feel like they lack control of the situation. Anger may cause someone to lose their temper, engage in reckless activities and distance themselves from those who want to help. While it's natural to feel angry, especially after experiencing something traumatic, anger and violent behavior can cause additional problems in one’s life, making it harder to recover.
Dangerous Behavior - One also may attempt to cope by doing things that are risky or dangerous. For example, a person may drive too fast or be quick to start a fight when someone upsets them. Further, some people may try to engage in activities such as starting smoking, smoking more, or eating to relieve stress. It’s important to remember negative strategies can lead to someone hurting themselves or someone else.
Working Too Much - Work can be a positive force in which a person may learn new things, interact with others, and gain confidence. But working too much can be a form of avoidance. Working too much is unhealthy as it can lead a person to: avoid seeking help for their stressor; spend less time with a support circle (i.e., family and/or friends); and one may work so much that they do not get adequate sleep or food, thus increasing their likelihood of getting sick.
Self-Help Techniques
When encountering significant stress, there are several types of stress-reducing activities that one can do to help cope in a healthy manner. The Cleveland Clinic recommends:[20]
Exercising on a regular basis.
Taking brief rest periods during the day to relax.
Taking vacations away from home and work.
Engaging in pleasurable or fun activities every day.
Practicing relaxation exercises such as yoga, prayer, meditation or progressive muscle relaxation.
Avoiding the use of caffeine and alcohol.
Not all positive coping responses will work well for every person. A person may need to try several different positive coping strategies until they find one(s) that work best for them.[21] Additionally, there are a number of reasons why coping mechanisms may stop being effective for a person, especially if they are ones that someone has used over a long period of time. For example, certain coping mechanisms may have become such a natural part of one’s daily routine that they’ve lost their positive impact. In other regards, some coping mechanisms may become stale or boring if a person uses the same playlist or routine at the gym, thus novelty is key to work into a coping mechanism over time. In many cases, it is natural for certain coping mechanisms to run their course and lose their impact over time. There is nothing wrong with adapting and changing one’s coping mechanisms – and should be viewed in a positive light, signifying the opportunity to try something new and find other healthy, beneficial coping strategies to increase one’s mood in a healthy manner.[22]
Contributed by: Jennifer (Ghahari) Smith, Ph.D.
REFERENCES
1 American Psychological Association. (n.d.) Coping Mechanism. (accessed 2-14-2023) https://dictionary.apa.org/coping-mechanism
2 UCLA Health. (n.d.) How People Cope with Stressful Situations. (accessed 2-15-2023) https://www.uclahealth.org/hospitals/resnick/patient-care/partial-hospitalization-and-intensive-outpatient-programs/adult-acute-partial-hospitalization-program/dual-diagnosis-intensive-outpatient-program/news-and-resources/how-do-you-cope
3 Cleveland Clinic. (n.d.) Stress: Coping with Life’s Stressors. (accessed 2-14-2023) https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/6392-stress-coping-with-lifes-stressors
4 UCLA Health
5 SOVA/University of Pittsburgh. (n.d.) When Coping Mechanisms No Longer Work. (accessed 2-14-2023) https://sova.pitt.edu/when-coping-mechanisms-no-longer-work
6 Ibid.
7 Cleveland Clinic
8 UCLA Health
9 Folkman S, Moskowitz JT. Coping: pitfalls and promise. Annu Rev Psychol. 2004;55:745-74.
10 Alberta. (n.d.) Common Coping Responses for Stress. (accessed 2-14-2023) https://myhealth.alberta.ca/Health/Pages/conditions.aspx?hwid=ta5463
11 UCLA Health
12 Alberta
13 UCLA Health
14 Algorani EB, Gupta V. Coping Mechanisms. [Updated 2022 Apr 28]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559031/
15 Compas BE, Jaser SS, Bettis AH, Watson KH, Gruhn MA, Dunbar JP, Williams E, Thigpen JC. Coping, emotion regulation, and psychopathology in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analysis and narrative review. Psychol Bull. 2017 Sep;143(9):939-991.
16 Santarnecchi E, Sprugnoli G, Tatti E, Mencarelli L, Neri F, Momi D, Di Lorenzo G, Pascual-Leone A, Rossi S, Rossi A. Brain functional connectivity correlates of coping styles. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci. 2018 Jun;18(3):495-508.
17 Casagrande M, Boncompagni I, Mingarelli A, Favieri F, Forte G, Germanò R, Germanò G, Guarino A. Coping styles in individuals with hypertension of varying severity. Stress Health. 2019 Oct;35(4):560-568.
18 Meggiolaro E, Berardi MA, Andritsch E, Nanni MG, Sirgo A, Samorì E, Farkas C, Ruffilli F, Caruso R, Bellé M, Juan Linares E, de Padova S, Grassi L. Cancer patients' emotional distress, coping styles and perception of doctor-patient interaction in European cancer settings. Palliat Support Care. 2016 Jun;14(3):204-11.
19 U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. (n.d.) Negative Coping and PTSD. (accessed 2-14-2023) https://www.ptsd.va.gov/gethelp/negative_coping.asp
20 Cleveland Clinic
21 Alberta
22 SOVA/University of Pittsburgh