Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Overview
Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget Theory of Cognitive Development sought to explain the intellectual functioning of adults, particularly how one acquires the ability to think logically and use evidence to draw valid conclusions.[1] This research-based theory became fundamental to influencing ideas on childhood development, shaping many preschool and primary school curricula.[2]
Piaget’s theory is based on the fundamental notion that a child develops through four sequential stages until they achieve a stage of thinking resembling that of an adult. Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development notes the following four stages: the sensorimotor stage from birth to 2 years; the pre-operational stage from 2 to 7 years; the concrete operational stage from 7 to 12 years; and the stage of formal operations which characterize adolescents and adults.[3]
Background
Charles Darwin’s originating ideas for development and, in particular, his 1877 "A biographical sketch of an infant" led the way for the ground-breaking work of Piaget. Prior to Darwin’s research, the notion of modern-day childhood did not exist, with children around the age of seven expected to perform in society similarly to that of an adult.[4]
One of the most prominent figures of twentieth-century psychology, Jean Piaget’s research into progressive cognitive growth is viewed as a cornerstone in developmental psychology. Flavell, Miller and Miller noted in their textbook about theories of development, “Theories of cognitive development can be divided into B. P. (Before Piaget), and A. P. (After Piaget), because of the impact of his theory on the theorizing that came thereafter.”[5] Piaget's work increased in popularity through the influential books authored by Hunt (1961) and Flavell (1963), coming into contact with learning theory and the information processing approach.[6,7]
Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development was based on his earlier construct of cognitive structure. Piaget regarded cognitive structure, or schema, as the patterns of physical/mental action that underlie acts of intelligence. The use of schema are used to interpret information in such a way that it helps one understand the environment. Piaget noted these structures corresponded to stages of child development.[8]
Theoretical Components
The primary purpose of intelligence, Piaget supposed, was to help humans adapt to their environment. Within this process of adaptation, cognitive structures were said to change through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. In this regard, assimilation refers to interpretation of events according to existing cognitive structures/schema or the taking in new information and fitting into previously understood mental schemas. Accommodation refers to the adaptation and revision of previously planned mental schema, according to the new/novel information or changes in one’s environment.[9]
The concept of one’s cognitive development is a continual effort to adapt to the environment by maintaining constant balance between assimilation and accommodation. Piaget argued that as the process of adaptation took place, a child would go through stages of cognitive development where increasingly complex cognitive processes are used at every stage of problem-solving.[10]
Recognizing that infants are inherently born with basic abilities necessary for intellectual development, Piaget focused his research on one’s sensory abilities and motor reflexes. With the nature of intelligence and learning qualitatively different at each developmental stage, he noted that accomplishments of each stage build upon those of previous stages. Further, if there is inadequate cognitive development at any stage, the achievement of subsequent stages will be affected. Piaget’s theory encompasses a learning dynamic which is an ongoing balance of exchanges between individuals and their environments. This ongoing lifelong process, known as constructivism, finds that individuals organize their worlds by organizing themselves.[11]
A fundamental assumption of Piaget is that one’s early intellectual growth arises mainly out of interactions with objects in their environment. For example, if children build sandcastles that get repeatedly washed away by ocean waves, they begin to learn that arrangement of objects in the world can be reversed. As they learn and grow, children begin to organize and adapt their experiences with objects into increasingly sophisticated cognitive models; this process enables them to deal with future situations in more effective ways. As children pass through the successive stages of cognitive development, their knowledge of the world begins to assume different forms; each new stage builds on the models and concepts acquired in the preceding stages. The final developmental stage, arising in adolescence, leads to an apex in thinking in a rational and systematic manner about hypothetical problems that are not necessarily reflective of their own experience.[12]
Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development:
1. Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
The first stage of cognitive development occurs in newborns to two years of age. During this time children master the phenomena of causality and object permanence. Infants utilize their senses and motor abilities to manipulate their surroundings and learn about the environment around them. By experimenting in such this way, they begin to understand the notion of cause-and-effect. A fundamental stepping stone that emerges around six months of age is the notion of object permanence; in this concept, one understands that objects continue to exist even when they are not immediately within view. As their frontal lobe matures and memories start to develop (around seven months), infants can begin to make mental schemas and imagine what may happen without having to physically enact something. This emergence of thought lets one plan out their actions better.[13] Additionally, near the end of the sensorimotor stage, children develop a rudimentary grasp of symbols (i.e. language).[14]
In “Cognitive Development” (2020), Malik and Marwaha detail the following milestones of the sensorimotor stage, based on the works of Wilks, Gerber and Erdie-Lalena:[15,16]
Newborn to 2 months: At birth, the optical focal length is approximately 10 inches. Infants seek stimuli actively, habituates to the familiar, and respond more actively when stimuli change. One’s initial responses are more reflexive, like sucking and grasping. An infant can fix and follow a slow horizontal arc and eventually will follow past the midline. One prefers a contrast, colors, and faces, understanding familiar from moderately novel stimuli. As one habituates to the caregiver's faces, they develop a preference. Infants will stare momentarily where an object has disappeared from (lack of object permanence). At this stage, infants prefer high-pitched voices.
2 to 6 months: Infants engage in a purposeful sensory exploration of their body, staring at one’s hands and reaching and touching body parts. Thus, building on the concept of cause and effect and self-understanding. One appreciates sensation and changes outside of themselves with less regularity. Mastering their motor abilities, something happens by chance, and then they repeat it. For example, touching a button may light up the toy, or crying can cause the appearance of the caregiver. Infants will anticipate routines at this age.
6 to 12 months: Object permanence emerges as the infant looks for objects. One will look for partially hidden objects first (6 months) and then completely hidden, for example, will uncover toys and engage in peek-a-boo (9 months). Separation anxiety and stranger anxiety emerge as one understands out of sight is not out of mind. As motor abilities advance, infants further explore using their senses by reaching, inspecting, holding, mouthing, and dropping objects. One can manipulate their environment, learning cause and effect by trial and error, like banging two blocks can produce a sound. Eventually, a mental schema is built (as Piaget suggested) as objects are learned to be used functionally. For example, pressing a button may intentionally open a toy box, in which they can reach to retrieve something to play with.
12 to 18 months: Around this time, motor abilities make it easier for a child to walk and reach, grasp, and release. One can explore toys to make them work. Novel play skills emerge: children imitate gestures and sounds, and egocentric pretend play emerges. As object permanence and memory advance, one can find a toy after witnessing a series of displacements and tracks moving objects.
18 to 24 months: As memory and processing skills advance and frontal lobes mature, one can now imagine outcomes without so much physical manipulation, and new problem-solving strategies emerge without rehearsal. Thought emerges, and there is the ability to plan actions. Object permanence establishes completely, and children can search for an object by anticipating where it may be, without witnessing its displacement. At 18 months, symbolic play expands from self, and instead of pretending to feed themselves, one may give the teddy bear a bottle as well as imitate housework.
2. Pre-Operational (2-7 years)
The pre-operational stage occurs during years two to seven, when a child learns to use mental representations, symbolic thought, and language. During this time, an infant learns to imitate and pretend to play. Egocentric, they are unable to perceive that people can think differently than they do, and everything (both positive and negative) is perceived to somehow link to them.[17] In this stage, children use symbols, but thinking remains pre-operational since they do not yet understand that a logical or mathematical operation can be reversed. While language matures, memory and imagination develop, one’s thinking remains nonlogical and egocentric during this time.[18]
24 to 60 months (Preschool years): During this stage, magical and wishful thinking emerges; for example, “the sun went home because it was tired.” This ability may also give rise to apprehensions with fear of monsters, and having logical solutions may not be enough for reassurance. Perception will dominate logic and giving them an imaginary tool, like a monster spray, to help relieve that anxiety may be more helpful. Similarly, conservation and volume concept lacks, and what appears bigger or larger is more. For example, one cookie split into two may be perceived to be equal to two cookies. At this stage, a child also has a poor concept of cause and effect; as an example, one may think along the lines of “I got sick because I misbehaved.” Children are egocentric in this approach and may look at situations from only their point of view, offering comfort from their stuffed toy to an upset loved one. At 36 months, a child can understand simple time concepts, identifies shapes, compares two items (e.g., bigger), and counts to "three." Play becomes more comprehensive from simple scripts of feeding a baby doll to going to the park. At 48 months, they can count to four, identifies four colors and understands opposites. At 60 months, pre-literacy and numeracy skills further, and children can count to 10 accurately, recites "ABC's by rote, and recognizes a few letters. A child also develops hand preference at this age. During the ages of four to five years, play stories become yet more detailed and may include scenarios from imagination, including imaginary friends. Playing with some game rules and obedience to those rules also establishes during the pre-school years. Rules can be absolute.[19]
3. Concrete Operational (7-11 years)
The "concrete operational stage" occurs from seven to 11 years, when the child uses logical operations when solving problems, including the mastering of conservation and inductive reasoning.[20] Within their newfound logical thinking, principles such as cause and effect and more fully understood. Further, operational thinking develops, mental actions become reversible, and egocentric thinking diminishes.[21]
During early school years, scientific reasoning and understanding of physical laws, such as weight and volume, develop. A child can understand multiple points of view as well as one perspective of a situation. Children in this age range now realize that rules of the game can change with mutual agreement. Mastery of basic literacy skills are mastered initially, and eventually, around third to fourth grade, emphasis shifts from learning to read to then reading to learn, and from spellings to composition writing. These developmental stages need mastery of sustained attention and processing skills, receptive and expressive language, as well as memory development and recall. The limitation children in this stage face is the inability to comprehend abstract ideas and the reliance of logical answers.[22]
4. Formal Operational (12+ years)
The formal operational stage (12 years and older) suggests that one can use logical operations with the ability to also use abstractions. One can understand theories and hypothesize and comprehend abstract ideas such as love and justice.[23] Within abstract thinking, thought operations do not necessarily relate to concrete concepts and phenomena. Further, during this stage there is a logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. While egocentric thought diminishes near the end of the concrete operational stage, it resumes early in this stage.[24]
During this age, teens are able to exercise logic in a systemic, scientific way. They can apply abstract thinking to solve algebraic problems and apply multiple logics simultaneously to reach a scientific solution. Later in adolescence and adulthood, one can use abstract thinking to apply to emotional and personal life problems. Some may have more influence from religiosity/moral rules and absolute concepts of right and wrong. Questioning the prevalent code of conduct may cause anxiety or rebellion, eventually leading to the development of one’s personal ethics. During the late teenage years and early adulthood, thinking about the future (e.g. relationships, commitment, and career goals) become important.[25,26]
Discussion
Early twenty-first-century theories of cognitive development are generally in agreement with the developmental milestones Piaget's described. These have provided some of the foundation for constructivist learning theories, promoting the discovery and support of children's developing interests as primary instructional techniques. However, subsequent research has modified various aspects of Piaget's model. While Piaget described the stages of cognitive development as occurring in individual steps, modern developmental psychologists view cognitive development as more of a fluid continuum. For example, studies have found that between the ages of five and eight, when children are at the cusp of logical thinking, they may use intentional logic (e.g. properties of a class) but not extensional logic (e.g. determining who or what can be a member of a class.) A child’s actions may therefore be deemed illogical by adults. Piaget knew that pre-operational children could practice intentional logic, but he believed that such incomplete logical thought was, by definition, prelogical.[27]
J. Longe (2016) noted that Piaget's belief that biological development drives movement to the next cognitive stage has generally been supported by cross-sectional studies of children in various Western cultures. However, this only regards Piaget's first three stages. Studies of adolescents have indicated that only 30%–35% of high-school seniors reached the formal operational stage. Further, many adults do not think formally. Thus, critics of Piaget’s theory argue that although biological maturity makes it “possible” to attain the formal operations stage, the transition is by no means automatic.[28]
One concern and critique of Piaget’s stages of child cognitive development would be a perceived poor generalizability of stages. For example, conservation may overlap between pre-operational and concrete operational stage as a child masters it in one task but not another. Further, modern understanding now is that a child masters the "Theory of Mind" (i.e. being able to understand other people’s thoughts and viewpoints) by four to five years of age, much earlier than when Piaget suggested that egocentrism resolves and diminishes.[29]
Another criticism of Piaget’s work was proposed by Case (1985). Barrouillet (1985) notes that the two postulates that provided the greatest difficulties were: the idea that behavior at each developmental level is underpinned by logical structures, with different types of structures determining successive developmental stages; and that the transition from one type of structure to the other resulted from a process of equilibration through a mechanism of reflective abstraction.[30,31]
Bruner (1960) and Vygotsky (1962) argued that Piaget’s theory neglected factors such as language and cultural influences, noting these factors were assumed to shape one’s cognitive development.[32,33]
While Case (1985) assumed that, “any theory of development must ultimately provide an unified account of the changes that are revealed by tests of children's higher cognitive processes and by tests of their more basic processes and capacities”[34] Barrouillet countered that developmental psychologists no longer agree in one all-encompassing theory and that, “Indeed, a general theory aiming at accounting for all the aspects of cognitive development from perception to abstract reasoning from birth to adulthood seems today out of reach.”[35]
Carey et al. concluded that while Piaget's constructivism and stage theory are still with us today, they are more divorced than originally assumed.[36] Barrouillet noted that what modern cognitive science suggests, and what Carey et al. argue when comparing the development of the theory of mind and of intuitive biology, is that “the development of concepts for understanding the physical, biological, and social world is not a mere and direct manifestation of the evolution of abstract and domain-general cognitive structures, as Piaget assumed.”[37]
Pediatricians and primary care practitioners are able to monitor a child's growth and development in children and, in particular, a child's cognitive development. A cognitive lag may show a developmental disorder such as: attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; learning disability; global developmental delay; developmental language disorder; developmental coordination disorder; mild intellectual disability; autism spectrum disorders; moderate-severe intellectual disability; cerebral palsy; fetal alcohol syndrome (FASD); or even vision impairment or deafness. Further, the most common causes of intellectual disability are FASD, Down syndrome, fragile X, other genetic/chromosomal problems, lead, other toxins, and environmental influences such as poverty, malnutrition, abuse, and neglect. Prenatal causes of intellectual disability (ID) may include infection, toxins and teratogens, congenital hypothyroidism, inborn errors of metabolism, and genetic abnormalities. Due to the variation in causes of ID, first-tier tests recommended are chromosomal microarray and fragile X testing.[38]
Intellectual disability is defined when there is a concern for both intellectual and adaptive functioning. Usually, on standardized measures, this means a score below two standard deviations to the mean, which is 100 for most measures. Standardized tests used to measure intellectual function include:[39]
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)
Stanford Binet
The standardized test for adaptive functioning include:
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale
Learning disability should be suspected when the Intelligence score is within the average range, but there is a significant discrepancy when compared to achievement scores and/or when a child does not respond to evidence-based interventions. Evidence-based interventions include increasing instruction time and utilizing specialized instructions by trained personnel in one’s particular deficit areas.[40]
Early recognition and diagnosis of ID are paramount to the well-being of the children and their families as improved cognition can save future economic expenditure and continued or increased disabilities. Clinical concerns can arise in the following areas: visual analysis; proprioception; motor control; memory storage and recall; attention span and sequencing; and deficits in receptive and/or expressive language.[41] Thus, the Council on Children with Disabilities recommends that not only surveillance but also active screening for developmental delays should be an integral part of medical practice.[42]
Contributed by: Jennifer (Ghahari) Smith, Ph.D.
References
1 “Piaget’s Theory,” Britannica (accessed 10-26-20) www.britannica.com/topic/human-behavior/Piagets-theory
2 "Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development." The Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology, edited by Jacqueline L. Longe, 3rd ed., vol. 2, Gale, 2016, pp. 893-894. Gale Health and Wellness, (accessed 10-26-20) link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3631000591/HWRC?u=paterson1&sid=HWRC&xid=67832113.
3 “Piaget’s Theory,” Britannica
4 Alderman H, Behrman JR, Glewwe P, Fernald L, Walker S. Evidence of Impact of Interventions on Growth and Development during Early and Middle Childhood. In: Bundy DAP, Silva Nd, Horton S, Jamison DT, Patton GC, editors. Child and Adolescent Health and Development. 3rd ed. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank; Washington (DC): Nov 20, 2017.
5 J.H. Flavell, P.H. Miller, S.A. Miller. Cognitive development (4th ed.) (pp. 8), Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ (2002).
6 J.M. Hunt. Intelligence and experience. Ronald Press, New York (1961).
7 J.H. Flavell. The developmental psychology of Jean Piaget. Van Nostrand, Princeton, NJ (1963).
8 Ikiugu M. Psychosocial Conceptual Practice Models in Occupational Therapy: Building Adaptive Capability. ScienceDirect; 2007. doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-04182-9.X5001-6
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid.
11 "Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development." The Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology.
12 “Piaget’s Theory,” Britannica
13 Alderman H, Behrman JR, Glewwe P, Fernald L, Walker S. Evidence of Impact of Interventions on Growth and Development during Early and Middle Childhood.
14 "Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development." The Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology.
15 Malik F, Marwaha R. Cognitive Development. [Updated 2020 Aug 18]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2020 Jan. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537095/
16 Wilks T, Gerber RJ, Erdie-Lalena C. Developmental milestones: cognitive development. Pediatr Rev. 2010 Sep;31(9):364-7.
17 Malik F, Marwaha R. Cognitive Development.
18 "Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development." The Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology.
19 Malik F, Marwaha R. Cognitive Development.
20 Ibid.
21 "Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development." The Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology.
22 Malik F, Marwaha R. Cognitive Development.
23 Ibid.
24 "Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development." The Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology.
25 Malik F, Marwaha R. Cognitive Development.
26 Wilks T, Gerber RJ, Erdie-Lalena C. Developmental milestones: cognitive development. Pediatr Rev. 2010 Sep;31(9):364-7.
27 "Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development." The Gale Encyclopedia of Psychology.
28 Ibid.
29 Newcombe NS. Cognitive development: changing views of cognitive change. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Cogn Sci. 2013 Sep;4(5):479-491.
30 R. Case. Intellectual development: Birth to adulthood. Academic Press, New York (1985).
31 Barrouillet P. Theories of cognitive development: From Piaget to today. Developmental Review. 2015. (38): 1-12. doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2015.07.004
32 J.S. Bruner. The process of education. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA (1960).
33 L.S. Vygotsky. Thought and language. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA (1962).
34 R. Case. Intellectual development: Birth to adulthood. pp. 50.
35 Barrouillet P. Theories of cognitive development: From Piaget to today.
36 Carey, D. Zaitchik, I. Bascandziev. Theories of development: In dialog with Jean Piaget. Developmental Review, 38 (2015), pp. 36-54.
37 Barrouillet P. Theories of cognitive development: From Piaget to today.
38 Malik F, Marwaha R. Cognitive Development.
39 Ibid.
40 Ibid.
41 Ibid.
42 Council on Children with Disabilities; Section on Developmental Behavioral Pediatrics; Bright Futures Steering Committee; Medical Home Initiatives for Children With Special Needs Project Advisory Committee. Identifying infants and young children with developmental disorders in the medical home: an algorithm for developmental surveillance and screening. Pediatrics. 2006 Jul;118(1):405-20.